White Book

Chapter 13

Violence and the law

Abuse and violence: Working with our patients in general practice
Download PDF
  2. Recommendations
  3. Figures and tables
  5. Resources
  6. Provided under licence

Key messages

  • Health practitioners are responsible for medical care, not legal advice, but they need to have an understanding of the legal issues around family violence and sexual assault 246
  • Assault occurring between family members is a criminal offence 246
  • Health practitioners should document any physical injuries and specific descriptions of violence, but should leave any interpretation of physical and other observations to a suitably qualified expert 246
Table 1

Table 1

Coding scheme used for levels of evidence and grades of recommendation 

Download View full size

Recommendation
Health practitioners can assist their patients experiencing abuse and violence by providing information on legal options and access to legal services

Practice point
Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies or reports of expert committees

  1. World Health Organization. Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women: WHO clinical and policy guidelines. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
  2. Hegarty K, Taft A, Feder G. Violence between intimate partners: working with the whole family. BMJ 2008;337.

Recommendation
In cases of recent sexual assault, if you are not trained in the collection of forensic evidence, your patient needs to be referred to a sexual assault service

Practice point
Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies or reports of expert committees

  1. World Health Organization. Guidelines for medico-legal care of sexual violence survivors. Geneva: WHO, 2003.
This chapter provides a general overview of the role of the law regarding family violence and issues to consider when a patient presents as the victim of sexual assault. The information in this section is not legal advice. This information may be useful as a resource to guide and to empower our patients in considering realistic options of legal protection for their own safety. If a patient expresses an interest, the contact references may be passed on to them. They need to take responsibility for their own legal issues.

When a patient discloses family violence, including sexual assault and sexual assault between intimate partners, it is valuable for the GP to have a basic understanding of the legal framework.246 This could include an understanding of family violence orders, the role of the police, and knowledge of referral options to community legal services.3,312,313 In cases of assault it is important for the doctor to document clearly and accurately what the patient has said about the assault and a description of any injuries. The medical notes may become evidence in potential criminal court proceedings.246

This chapter outlines responses to family violence and sexual assault involving legal intervention. However, Australian states and territories have differing legislation that may apply to one or all of these types of abuse. Legal responses to violence are not the domain of general practice.

GPs should encourage their patients to approach the police directly and report an assault. The police may be able to provide more information about the patient’s legal options. In many cases the patient, having reported to the police, will be able to activate or withdraw from criminal proceedings at a later stage. GPs should also offer to report the incident to the appropriate authorities, including the police, if the patient wants this.3 However, it is important to respect their wishes and not pressure them into making any decisions.312

In sexual assault, for adults there may be an option of reporting an incident but not proceeding with charges. This is important as they can reinstate the complaint in the future when they feel more confident and able to cope with the situation. It can remain simply as a ‘statement’. This can help to re-empower patients by giving them back some sense of control. Further to this, a number of counselling services can be made available to a victim of assault via victim of crime support agencies. These differ in each state and contact can be made via the police (refer to Table 18 ).

There may be a range of reasons that patients may not wish to involve the police, such as fear of retribution, the event having occurred sometime in the past, or embarrassment. In particular, barriers to disclosing sexual violence include women not having identified the act as sexual violence or a crime, thinking that they will not be believed, fearing how they will be treated by the criminal justice system, and considering that they may be able to handle it themselves.

Delay in reporting an offence to the police can be for a number of other reasons including:27

  • fear of reprisals from the partner
  • not wanting family and friends to know because of the humiliation and shame
  • fear of coping with police, the justice system and legal procedures
  • shame and prevalent social attitudes, which blame the victim
  • denial and disbelief
  • hope for change.

Thus, there are many reasons, outlined above, why disclosure is not immediate and is often sporadic or non linear. It has been called the ‘dance of disclosure’ – where women reveal only partially, become frightened after they disclose and disappear for some time, then disclose at another time and place. Sometimes they disclose major incidents – for example, rapes first then, with time, other incidents.

Most state and territory police forces have specially trained units that can still assist patients in referring them to appropriate services if they do not wish to seek a protection order or pursue charges against the perpetrator. Alternatively, local community services may liaise with the police on the patients’ behalf.

The NSW Department of Health recommends in its Domestic Violence Policy discussion paper that health workers notify the police where the survivor has serious injuries such as broken bones, stab wounds, lacerations or gunshot wounds. Wherever possible, the victim should be informed when a decision is made to inform the police.314

Police assault and family violence investigation teams/units in each state or territory
ACT
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Queensland adult assult
Queensland domestic violence
South Australia
Tasmania
Western Australia
Victoria

Generally the law can address family violence in two ways: family violence orders that are legislated under civil law, and criminal charges. The term ‘family violence order’ is used in this chapter as a generic term for those orders specifically for family violence, though some states may have different names for these. Some states may use one form of order to cover both instances of family violence and assault. These can be called ‘intervention orders’, ‘protection orders’ or ‘restraining orders’. See below for more detail on what such orders can do.

If your patient is a victim of family violence, recommend, if appropriate, that they go to the police or relevant local community services, obtain legal advice or approach the local magistrates’ court services assisting in family violence orders.

Specially trained police officers can assist victims to access appropriate services and emergency orders to provide immediate safety. Doctors or patients can seek advice and information from the police on behalf of a patient without disclosing the patient’s name. You can also encourage patients to talk to the police themselves, even if they don’t identify themselves – patients may be helped by meeting with a trained police officer directly (refer to Resources).

Family violence and protection orders

These orders, which are made by the court and in some emergency cases the police, attempt to restrict or prohibit certain behaviours by the perpetrator. Orders may, for example, include prohibiting a person from harassing or threatening the survivor and/or approaching the victim’s home or place of employment. The court may also have the power to order that the perpetrator be excluded from the family home.

Details of these orders are different for each state and territory (Table 19). However, restraining orders may relate to:

  • recent assaults, threats and/or harassment by a partner, family member, friend or stranger where the person is fearful of it happening in the future – especially death threats
  • actual or threatened damage to property.

It is preferable that a person obtaining a restraining order asks for advice about the legislation in their state or territory – what orders are available, and what will afford them the most adequate protection (refer to Resources for links to appropriate sources for such advice).

It is beyond the scope of this manual to advise GPs in relation to the law in each state and territory. At the same time a complaint about criminal conduct is made to the police, their assistance should be sought and, if necessary, further legal advice obtained.

Court support services can be very helpful for women who have experienced family violence. Availability of these services can vary, and are offered by local community agencies. They may also be accessed at the magistrates’ court and the police may be able to provide further information.

Please note that in the Northern Territory, mandatory reporting provisions in the Domestic and Family Violence Act require that any adult must contact the police where they reasonably believe another person has been, is at risk of or is experiencing, serious physical harm through domestic or family violence. This requirement overrides issues of confidentiality.

Family violence and protection orders

Australian Capital Territory

In the ACT, it is necessary to apply for a domestic violence order or personal protection order through the Magistrates’ Court. For assistance, patients can go to the Legal Aid Domestic Violence and Personal Protection Orders Unit located at the Court.
Further information is available at:

New South Wales

The patient or the police on their behalf can apply for either an ADVO or an apprehended personal violence order (APVO), where the people involved are not related and do not have a domestic relationship, for example, they are neighbours or work together.
Further information is available under the topic ‘domestic violence’ at:

Northern Territory

The Domestic and Family Violence Act enforces mandatory reporting to police by all adults who reasonably believe someone has been, is at risk of or is experiencing serious physical harm through family or domestic violence. The patient, someone on their behalf with their consent, or the police, can apply to the court for a domestic violence order. If the violence is being committed by someone who is not in a family or domestic relationship with the patient, the patient can apply for a personal violence restraining order.
Further information is available at:

Queensland

The patient or the police or an authorised person such as a friend, relative or community work (on the patient’s behalf) can apply for a domestic violence order (protection order). This covers intimate personal relationships, family relationships and informal care relationship (where one person relies on another for daily living).
Further information is available at:

South Australia

Police, on behalf of the patient, can either issue an intervention order if grounds to do so and the perpetrator is present or in custody, or they can apply to the courts. A patient, or someone on their behalf, may also apply for an intervention order to the courts directly.

An interim intervention order may initially be issued, after which it may be confirmed by the magistrates’ court.

Further information is available at:

Tasmania

Patients can seek a family violence order (FVO) or restraining order with assistance from the police, legal aid commission or court support and liaison service.
More information is available at:

Western Australia

For cases of both domestic or family violence and assault, patients can apply for a restraining order at the Magistrates’ Court, or the police may be able to do this on the patient’s behalf. The police can also impose a police order, which is a temporary form of restraining order that can be put in place while the restraining order is applied for through the courts.
Further information is available at:

Victoria

There are two types of intervention order in Victoria. A patient may apply for a family violence intervention order or a personal safety intervention order where the perpetrator is not a family member. The Magistrates’ Court of Victoria provides useful information about taking out these intervention orders at:

Victoria Legal Aid has booklets available for download regarding the law and sexual assault or family violence on its website. There is also further information about both types of intervention orders, available at:

It is useful for GPs to become aware of other services and service providers in the area for both themselves and their patients. These may include counselling services, the police, sexual assault services dealing with the collection of forensic evidence, local hospitals and local courts.246

No matter how long ago the sexual assault happened, a victim can, and may wish to, contact the police. There is no ‘statute of limitations’ for sexual assault. In the event that they do, they can contact any police station, which will, in turn, arrange for a trained officer to contact the victim. Most Australian states have specialised crime units that deal with sexual assault issues.

A physical examination is best performed as soon as possible after the patient presents. Delay may result in:

  • lost therapeutic opportunities – for example, provision of emergency contraception
  • changes to the physical evidence – for example, healing of injuries
  • loss of forensic material – for example, evidence of contact with the assailant, including blood and semen.246

However, victims of sexual assault may not present for treatment for some considerable time after the assault.246 Chapter 9  provides greater detail of the management of patients who have experienced sexual assault and the WHO has produced guidelines for health workers managing cases of sexual assault.

If the event occurred recently, forensic evidence is best collected as soon as possible and, in particular, in the first 72 hours after the assault. Forensic evidence will be important if the patient decides to go to court about this matter. If you are not trained in the collection of forensic evidence, your patient needs to be referred to a sexual assault service (refer to Resources and Chapter 9 ). The implications of, and consent to, the collection of this evidence will need to be discussed with the patient by a professional qualified to do so.246Sensitivity in both the discussion and collection of evidence is required in order not to re-victimise the patient. Forensic and medical sexual assault clinicians are qualified to deal with these issues.

There are other advantages to early reporting to the police. Police may be able to collect evidence from the crime scene, from clothing or sheets, or for example from CCTV, which would otherwise be lost. In most cases the victim will later be able to withdraw if she does not wish to continue with criminal proceedings. Many victims of sexual assault find some satisfaction or meaning in assisting the police gather evidence that may assist in solving other crimes, or in the protection of other potential victims, even if they themselves choose not to proceed with the court process.

In many Australian states there are specific sexual assault services, often situated at a hospital. A nationwide list can be found at Forensic and Medical Sexual Assault Clinicians Australia (refer to Resources). Patients can be referred for forensic examination and for counselling services whether they choose to report, or not to report, the assault to police.

If there is the potential for further sexual assault to occur and the perpetrator is not considered to be related to, or in a domestic relationship with, your patient, they may be able to apply for a form of protection order (the name of these orders vary between states and territories). As in cases of family violence, you may direct your patient to go to the police, relevant local community or legal services to get assistance or advice.

The Northern Territory requires any adult to report to police if they believe on reasonable grounds that a child has been, is, or is likely to be at risk of a sexual offence or to experience harm or exploitation. In other states and territories, all medical practitioners are required to report any assault perpetrated against people under the age of 18 years (16 years in New South Wales and 17 in Victoria). Each Australian state and territory has different legislation regarding what must be reported by whom ( refer to Table 10, Chapter 6 ). When in doubt, it is always best to check with your medical defence organisation or with the reporting agency, initially without mentioning the child’s name.

There is no mandatory framework requiring GPs to report adult abuse, except in the Northern Territory. However, it may be the case that a patient is exposed to abuse or violence threatening his or her safety. If a patient has lost capacity, and is unable to make decisions in his or her own best interests, the assistance of a substitute decision maker may be required.

In the case of suspected abuse where the patient has lost capacity, the first step is to check the patient’s record to identify if a substitute decision maker has already been appointed. If there is no clear indication of the existence of a substitute decision maker, or if that person is the suspected abuser, you need to contact the public guardian, public advocate or appropriate body in your own state or territory if it is considered necessary or desirable to safeguard the patient’s wellbeing.

If a patient has capacity, patient consent may be sought to enlist the support of the public guardian, public advocate or similar person to protect them or to remove them from threatened risk.

In circumstances where you reasonably believe there is an imminent threat of harm to the patient, you can call the police without contravening any privacy principles. The more vulnerable the patient – for example, if they are elderly – the more important it may be for the doctor to inform the police or seek medico-legal advice.

Table 20 lists government websites that are useful reference points for GPs, or family members of the patient who is incapacitated and qualifies for assistance of the public guardian, public advocate or similar person.

Advocacy groups in each state

Victoria
New South Wales
Western Australia
South Australia
Queensland
Australian Capital Territory
Northern Territory
Tasmania
National
 

If you consider it professionally appropriate to take steps to assist a patient through the appointment of a public advocate or public guardian, it may be desirable first to seek professional advice without identifying the patient in order to ensure that their situation falls within the jurisdiction of the relevant public advocate or public guardian.

If deemed appropriate, you can report abuse to a number of different agencies, including the police, RACF and the public advocate or your state or territory equivalent (refer to Tables 18 and 20). Protection orders and sexual assault services may be considered, if appropriate.

The service most frequently identified as the first point of contact for victims of assault is a doctor or hospital. This initial contact is important in a patient’s decision to address the violence. It is important for GPs to understand the legal frameworks of abuse. Remember that GPs do not need to, and should not, provide advice to patients in these legal matters. That said, providing patients with information and links to appropriate services is important, as this provides them with the avenues they require to make an informed choice.

It is helpful to be able to provide patients with appropriate medical care, accurate information and referrals. But most importantly, to provide the message that their safety is paramount and that what is happening to them is:

  • not their fault
  • not okay
  • is a crime.

Patients may make very different choices to those of their GP. It is very important to respect their choices, stay involved and consider their readiness to seek legal action ( refer to Chapter 4 ).

Case study

This is a true story of a patient’s journey through the legal processes of dealing with intimate partner abuse. It helps us to understand the stress that can be experienced as women negotiate such a journey.

This story started in the mid 1980s as I was preparing to study an arts degree. My husband at first encouraged this, but after marriage he decided it was unnecessary for me to study. The first physical violence occurred within 6 months of the marriage, around the issue of my studying. I was shocked and confused when he first hit me. I didn’t tell anyone. I went to the doctor because I was tired and unwell and he prescribed antidepressants.

My husband was very critical of my using antidepressants and insisted that I cancel my driver’s licence and stopped me spending time with family and friends.

We moved away from Sydney and bought an old house, which I was primarily responsible for renovating. My health became worse. I became more isolated. I had arranged a visit to Europe, which my husband did everything in his power to prevent. It was a time when I could reflect on my life, my health improved and I met a family who were very supportive. They recognised that things were not right and encouraged me to talk. Meanwhile, my husband was demanding my return and achieved this by reporting my Visa card stolen. It was cancelled and I had no access to funds.

I arrived home with not a friend anywhere. My husband had turned my family and friends against me. He insisted I write to my friends overseas and cut off contact. They were alerted by this and wrote to my family. My husband continued to abuse me, ranting that I was selfish and ungrateful. He accused me of being lazy and careless and criticised everything I did. He also accused me of having affairs. He kept knives in his bedside table and I was totally intimidated. I couldn’t sleep at night – I only slept 2 to 3 hours a day when he was out of the house. I lost weight and started smoking.

The letter to my family alerted them and I was able to explain things to my parents and break my husband’s hold on them. I began to see a counsellor, Karen, who would prove to be very helpful to me.

Why didn’t I leave earlier?

The only way for women to leave domestic violence is to leave the house. When people say: ‘Why don’t you leave?’ I ask them how would they feel if tomorrow morning they were to walk out of their home, leaving everything behind and in the evening they would not come back or the next night or ever again. Just leave everything behind and try to find a new life.

To walk out into the unknown is very hard for someone who has lost all confidence and belief in themselves. It’s hard to believe you can manage alone. Also, there is the terrible fear of the husband and what may happen if he catches up with you. Some women not only have to leave, but also have to go far away to be safe. I had to go to Darwin. The logistics can be very daunting.
I was slowly helped, so that I was able to go to a solicitor for advice, make a plan to leave, go to a distant place for safety and arrange for an apprehended domestic violence order (ADVO).

This is only a very small part of the story as it has involved divorce, trying through the Family Court to get a settlement and slowly, very slowly, rebuilding my life. The most difficult times were going to court for the ADVO (I could not have done this without a court support worker), and the meetings at the Family Court where they tried to force me to be in the same room with my husband. The lawyer insisted that we be kept separate as there was an ADVO and it was not possible for any negotiations with my husband. It is as if my husband has been able to continue his abuse through the court system.

Why have I told my story?

I do it in the hope that it will enable you to understand what may be going on behind closed doors; why it is so hard to leave; how intimidated and exhausted one can become; how leaving needs to be planned and carefully done; and how leaving is only the beginning of much more that needs to be organised.
I appreciate the support I have had from my counsellor, family and doctors. I hope to prevent this happening to other women.

Resources

Please refer to Appendix 7 for resources nationally and in your area.

Further information

When she talks to you about the violence is a tool kit for GPs on domestic violence that was developed in NSW.

  1. Rivas C, Ramsay J, Sadowski L, et al. Advocacy interventions to reduce or eliminate violence and promote the physical and psychoso-cial well-being of women who experience intimate partner abuse. Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Library, 2014.
  2. Taft A, O’Doherty L, Hegarty K, et al. Screening women for intimate partner violence in healthcare settings. Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Library, 2013.
  3. World Health Organization. Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women: WHO clinical and policy guidelines. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
  4. Taft AJ, Hegarty KL, Feder GS. Tackling partner violence in families. Med J Aust 2006;185:535–6.
  5. Hegarty KL, O’Doherty LJ, Taft AJ, et al. Effect of screening and brief counselling for abused women on quality of life, safety planning and mental health: A primary care cluster randomised controlled trial (weave). Lancet 2013;382:249–58.
  6. Feder GS, Hutson M, Ramsay J, et al. Women exposed to intimate partner violence: expectations and experiences when they encounter health care professionals: a meta-analysis of qualitative studies. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:22–37.
  7. MacMillan HL, Wathen CN, Barlow J, et al. Interventions to prevent child maltreatment and associated impairment. Lancet 2009;373:250–66.
  8. National Health and Medical Research Council. NHMRC additional levels of evidence and grades for recommendations for developers of guidelines. Canberra: NHMRC, 2009.
  9. Krug EG, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, et al. The world report on violence and health. Lancet 2002;360:1083–8.
  10. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Personal Safety. Canberra: ABS, 2012.
  11. World Health Organization. A global response to elder abuse and neglect: building primary health care capacity to deal with the problem worldwide: main report. Geneva: WHO, 2008.
  12. Taft A, Hegarty K, Flood M. Are men and women equally violent to intimate partners? Aust NZ J Public Health 2001;25:498–500.
  13. Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, et al, editors. World report on violence and health. Geneva: WHO, 2002.
  14. Reilly JM, Gravdal JA. An ecological model for family violence prevention across the life cycle. Fam Med 2012;44:332–5.
  15. Heise LL. Violence against women: an integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women 1998;4:262–90.
  16. Victorian Health Promotion Foundation. National Survey on Community Attitudes to Violence Against Women 2009. Changing cultures, changing attitudes – preventing violence against women. A summary of findings. Carlton: Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, 2009.
  17. Mouzos J, Makkai T. Women’s experience of male violence: Findings from the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women survey. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004.
  18. O’Donnell C, Smith A, Madison J. Using demographic risk factors to explain variations in the incidence of violence against women. J Interpers Violence 2002;17:1239–62.
  19. Kitzmann KM, Gaylord NK, Holt AR, et al. Child witnesses to domestic violence: a meta-analytic review. J Consult Clin Psychol 2003;71:339–52.
  20. Newman L. The last frontier: Practice guidelines for the treatment of complex and trauma informed care and service delivery: ASCA, 2012.
  21. Felitti VJ, Anda RF. The relationship of adverse childhood experiences to adult medical disease, psychiatric disorders and sexual be-haviour: Implications for healthcare. In: Lanius RA, Vermetten E, Pain C, editors. The Impact of Early Life Trauma on Health and Dis-ease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 77–87.
  22. Hegarty K. What is intimate partner abuse and how common is it? In: Roberts G, Hegarty K, Feder G, editors. Intimate partner abuse and health professionals: new approaches to domestic violence. London: Elsevier, 2006. p. 19–40.
  23. Vos T, Astbury J, Piers L, et al. Measuring the impact of intimate partner violence on the health of women in Victoria, Australia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2006;84:739–44.
  24. Bedi G, Goddard C. Intimate partner violence: what are the impacts on children? Aust Psychol 2007;42:66–77.
  25. Feder G, Ramsay J, Dunne D, et al. How far does screening women for domestic (partner) violence in different healthcare settings meet criteria for a screening programme? Systematic reviews of nine UK National Screening Committee criteria. Health Technology As-sessment 2009;13:iii–iv, xi–xiii, 1–113, 37–347.
  26. Tan E, O’Doherty L, Hegarty K. GPs’ communication skills: a study into women’s comfort to disclose intimate partner violence. Aust Fam Physician 2012;41:513–7.
  27. Hegarty K, Taft A. Overcoming the barriers to disclosure and inquiry of partner abuse for women attending general practice. Aust NZ J Public Health 2001;25:433–7.
  28. Hegarty K, Gunn J, Chondros P, et al. Physical and social predictors of partner abuse in women attending general practice: a cross-sectional survey. Br J Gen Pract 2008;58:484–7.
  29. VicHealth. Preventing violence before it occurs: A framework and background paper to guide the primary prevention of violence against women in Victoria. Melbourne: VicHealth, 2007.
  30. World Health Organisation. Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
  31. Upston B, Durey R. Everyone’s business: a guide to developing workplace programs for the primary prevention of violence against women. Melbourne: Women’s Health Victoria, 2012.
  32. Powell A. Review of bystander approaches in support of preventing violence against women. Melbourne: Victorian Health Promotion Foundation/VicHealth, 2011.
  33. Bonds DE, Ellis SD, Weeks E, et al. A practice-centered intervention to increase screening for domestic violence in primary care practic-es. BMC Fam Pract 2006;7:63.
  34. Campbell JC. Health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet 2002;359:1331–36.
  35. Black MC. Intimate partner violence and adverse health consequences: Implications for clinicians. Am J Lifestyle Med 2011;5:428.
  36. Hegarty K, Gunn J, Chondros P, et al. Association between depression and abuse by partners of women attending general practice: de-scriptive, cross sectional survey. BMJ 2004;328:621–4.
  37. Waalen J, Goodwin MM, Spitz AM, et al. Screening for intimate partner violence by health care providers: barriers and interventions. Am J Prev Med 2000;19:230–7.
  38. Parkinson D. Partner rape and rurality. Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault, 2008.
  39. Relf MV, Glass N. Gay and lesbian relationships and intimate partner abuse. In: Roberts G, Hegarty K, Feder G, editors. Intimate partner abuse and health professionals: New approaches to domestic violence. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2006. p. 213–28.
  40. Mouzos J. Femicide: The killing of women in Australia 1989–1998. Research and Public Policy Series. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 1999.
  41. Wallace A. Homicide: The social reality. Sydney: New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, 1986.
  42. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Average Weekly Earnings, Australia, Nov 2013 – 6302.0. Canberra: ABS, 2013.
  43. Feder GS, Hutson M, Ramsay J, et al. Women exposed to intimate partner violence: expectations and experiences when they encounter health care professionals: a meta-analysis of qualitative studies. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:22–37.
  44. Gazmararian J, Lazorick S, Spitz A. Prevalence of violence against pregnant women. JAMA 1996;275:1915–20.
  45. Gazmararian J. Violence and reproductive health: current knowledge and future research directions. Matern Child Health 2000;4:79–84.
  46. Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey 2008. Canberra: AGPS, 2010.
  47. Weatherburn D, Snowball L. Is there a cultural explanation for Indigenous violence? A second look at the NATSISS. In: Hunter B, Biddle N, editors. Survey Analysis for Indigenous Policy in Australia: Social Science Perspectives. Canberra: ANU E Press, 2012.
  48. McNair RP. Lesbian health inequalities: a cultural minority issue for health professionals. Med J Aust 2003;178:643–5.
  49. McNair RP, Kavanagh A, Agius P, Tong B. The mental health status of young adult and mid-life non-heterosexual Australian women. Aust N Z J Public Health 2005;29:265–71.
  50. Blosnich JR, Bossarte RM. Comparisons of intimate partner violence among partners in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships in the United States. Am J Public Health 2009;99:2182–4.
  51. Irwin J. (Dis)counted Stories: Domestic Violence and Lesbians. Qualitative Social Work 2008;7:199–215.
  52. McNair R. A guide to sensitive care for lesbian, gay and bisexual people attending General Practice. Melbourne: The University of Mel-bourne, 2012.
  53. McNair RP, Hegarty K. Guidelines for the primary care of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: a systematic review. Ann Fam Med 2010;8:533–41.
  54. Laing L. Risk Assessment in Domestic Violence: Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearninghouse, 2004.
  55. Campbell JC. Helping women understand their risk in situations of intimate partner violence. J Interpers Viol 2004;19:1464–77.
  56. Coker AL, Bethea L, Smith PH, et al. Missed opportunities: intimate partner violence in family practice settings. Prev Med 2002;34:445–54.
  57. Campbell JC, Sharps P, Glass N. Risk assessment for intimate partner homicide. In: Pinard GF, Pagani L, editors. Clinical assessment of dangerousness: Empirical contributions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  58. Family violence risk assessment and risk management. Department for Victorian Communities, 2007.
  59. Campbell J. Nursing Assessment for Risk of Homicide with Battered Women. Adv Nurs Sci 1986;8:36–51.
  60. Renner LM, Slack KS. Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: understanding intra- and intergenerational connections. Child Abuse Negl 2006;30:599–617.
  61. Ernst AA, Weiss SJ, Enright-Smith S, et al. Positive outcomes from an immediate and ongoing intervention for child witnesses of intimate partner violence. Am J Emerg Med 2008;26:389–94.
  62. Hardesty J, Campbell JC. Safety planning for abused women and their children. In: Jaffe PG, Baker LL, Cunningham AJ, editors. Protect-ing children from domestic violence: strategies for community intervention. New York: Guilford Press, 2004. p. 89–101.
  63. Ferris L, Norton P, Dunn E, et al. Guidelines for managing domestic abuse when male and female partners are patients of the same phy-sician. JAMA 1997;278:851–7.
  64. Women’s Legal Services NSW. When she talks to you about the violence: A toolkit for GPs in NSW. 2013
  65. Campbell JC, Sharps P, et al. Medical lethality assessment and safety planning in domestic violence cases. Family and Community Vio-lence 2003;5:101–11.
  66. Neighbors C, Walker DD, Roffman RA et al. Self-determination theory and motivational interviewing: Complementary models to elicit voluntary engagement by partner-abusive men. Am J Fam Ther 2008;36:126–36.
  67. Rollnick S, Miller W, Butler C. Motivational interviewing in Health Care. New York: Guilford Press, 2008.
  68. Arkowitz H, Westra HA. Introduction to the special series on motivational interviewing and psychotherapy. J Clin Psychol 2009;65:1149–55.
  69. Miller WR, Rose GS. Toward a theory of motivational interviewing. Am Psychol 2009;64:527–37.
  70. Burke JG, Denison JA, Gielen AC, et al. Ending intimate partner violence: an application of the transtheoretical model. Am J Health Behav 2004;28:122–33.
  71. Chang JC, Cluss PA, Ranieri L, et al. Health care interventions for intimate partner violence: what women want. Womens Health Issues 2005;15:21–30.
  72. Chang JC, Dado D, Ashton S, et al. Understanding behavior change for women experiencing intimate partner violence: mapping the ups and downs using the stages of change. Patient Educ Couns 2006;62:330–9.
  73. Frasier PY, Slatt L, Kowlowitz V, et al. Using the stages of change model to counsel victims of intimate partner violence. Patient Educ Couns 2001;43:211–7.
  74. Jewkes R. Intimate partner violence: the end of routine screening. Lancet 2013;382:190–1.
  75. Johnson NL, Johnson DM. Correlates of Readiness to Change in Victims of Intimate Partner Violence. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma 2013;22:127–44.
  76. Kistenmacher BR, Weiss RL. Motivational interviewing as a mechanism for change in men who batter: a randomized controlled trial. Vio-lence Vict 2008;23:558–70.
  77. Schrager JD, Smith LS, Heron SL, et al. Does stage of change predict improved intimate partner violence outcomes following an emer-gency department intervention? Acad Emerg Med. 2013;20:169–77.
  78. Sheehan KA, Thakor S, Stewart DE. Turning points for perpetrators of intimate partner violence. Trauma Violence Abuse 2012;13:30–40.
  79. Zalmanowitz SJ, Babins-Wagner R, Rodger S, et al. The association of readiness to change and motivational interviewing with treatment outcomes in males involved in domestic violence group therapy. J Interpers Violence 2013;28:956–74.
  80. Apodaca TR, Longabaugh R. Mechanisms of change in motivational interviewing: a review and preliminary evaluation of the evidence. Addiction 2009;104:705–15.
  81. Miller WR, Rollnick S. Ten things that motivational interviewing is not. Behav Cogn Psychother 2009;37:129–40.
  82. Burke JG, Mahoney P, Gielen A, et al. Defining appropriate stages of change for intimate partner violence survivors. Violence Vict 2009;24:36–51.
  83. Alexander PC, Tracy A, Radek M, et al. Predicting stages of change in battered women. J Interpers Violence 2009;24:1652–72.
  84. Burkitt KH, Larkin GL. The transtheoretical model in intimate partner violence victimization: stage changes over time. Violence Vict 2008;23:411–31.
  85. Chang JC, Dado D, Hawker L, et al. Understanding turning points in intimate partner violence: factors and circumstances leading women victims toward change. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010;19:251–9.
  86. West R. Time for a change: putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model to rest. Addiction 2005;100:1036–9.
  87. Hegarty KL, O’Doherty LO, Astbury J, et al. Identifying intimate partner violence when screening for health and lifestyle issues among women attending general practice. Aust J Prim Health 2012;18:327–31.
  88. Ramsay J, Rutterford C, Gregory A, et al. Domestic violence: knowledge, attitudes, and clinical practice of selected UK primary healthcare clinicians. Br J Gen Pract 2012;62:647–55.
  89. Mitchell L. Domestic violence in Australia – an overview of the issues. Canberra: Parliament of Australia, Department of Parliamentary Ser-vices, 2011.
  90. Alston M, Allan J, Dietsch E, et al. Brutal neglect: Australian rural women’s access to health services. Rural Remote Health 2006;6:475.
  91. Sprague S, Madden K, Simunovic N, et al. Barriers to screening for intimate partner violence. Women Health 2012;52:587–605.
  92. Tiwari A, Leung WC, Leung TW, et al. A randomised controlled trial of empowerment training for Chinese abused pregnant women in Hong Kong. BJOG 2005;112:1249–56.
  93. Kiely M, El-Mohandes AA, El-Khorazaty MN, et al. An integrated intervention to reduce intimate partner violence in pregnancy: a random-ized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:273–83.
  94. Petersen R, Moracco KE, Goldstein KM, et al. Moving beyond disclosure: women’s perspectives on barriers and motivators to seeking assistance for intimate partner violence. Women Health 2004;40:63–76.
  95. Burge SK, Schneider FD, Ivy L. Patients’ advice to physicians about intervening in family conflict. Ann Fam Med 2005;3:248–54.
  96. Katerndahl DA, Burge SK, Ferrer RL, Becho J, Wood R. Complex dynamics in intimate partner violence: a time series study of 16 women. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2010;12.
  97. Klevens J, Kee R, Trick W, et al. Effect of screening for partner violence on women’s quality of life: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2012;308:681–9.
  98. Musser PH, Murphy CM. Motivational interviewing with perpetrators of intimate partner abuse. J Clin Psychol 2009;65:1218–31.
  99. Tetterton S, Farnsworth E. Older women and intimate partner violence: effective interventions. J Interpers Violence 2011;26:2929–42.
  100. Battaglia TA, Finley E, Liebschutz JM. Survivors of intimate partner violence speak out: trust in the patient-provider relationship. J Gen Intern Med 2003;18:617–23.
  101. Rees S, Silove D, Chey T, et al. Lifetime prevalence of gender-based violence in women and the relationship with mental disorders and psychosocial function. JAMA 2011;306:513–21.
  102. Aldridge ML, Browne KD. Perpetrators of spousal homicide: a review. Trauma Violence Abuse 2003;4:265–76.
  103. Laslett, A-M., Catalano, P., Chikritzhs, Y., Dale, C., Doran, C., Ferris, J., Jainullabudeen, T., Livingston, M, Matthews, S., Mugavin, J., Room, R., Schlotterlein, M. and Wilkinson, C. (2010) The Range and Magnitude of Alcohol’s Harm to Others. Fitzroy, Victoria: AER Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, Turning Point Alcohol and Drug Centre, Eastern Health.
  104. Mintz H, Cornett F. When your patient is a batterer: what you need to know before treating perpetrators of domestic violence. Postgrad Med 1997;101:219–28.
  105. World Health Organization/London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: taking action and generating evidence. Geneva: WHO, 2010.
  106. Danielson K, Moffitt T, Caspi A, et al. Comorbidity between abuse of an adult and DSM-III-R mental disorders: evidence from an epidemi-ological study. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:131–3.
  107. Humphreys C, Regan L, River D, et al. Domestic violence and substance use: tackling complexity. Br J Soc Work 2005;35:1303–20.
  108. Sharps P, Campbell J, Campbell D, et al. The role of alcohol use in intimate partner femicide. Am J Addict 10:122–35.
  109. Thompson M, Kingree J. The roles of victim and perpetrator alcohol use in intimate partner violence outcomes. J Interpers Violence 2006;21:163–77.
  110. Taft A, Shakespeare J. Managing the whole family when women are abused by intimate partners: challenges for health professionals. In: Roberts G, Hegarty K, Feder G, editors. Intimate partner abuse and health professionals: New approaches to domestic violence. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2006. p. 145–62.
  111. Gerbert B, Moe J, Caspers N. Physicians’ response to victims of domestic violence: Toward a model of care. Women Health 2002;35:1–22.
  112. Helfritz L, Stanford M, Conklin S, et al. Usefulness of self-report instruments in assessing men accused of domestic violence. Psychol Rec 2006;56:171–80.
  113. Adams D. Guidelines for doctors on identifying and helping their patients who batter. J Am Med Womens Assoc 1996;51:123–6.
  114. Taft A, Broom D, Legge D. General practitioner management of intimate partner abuse and the whole family: qualitative study. BMJ 2004;328:618.
  115. Miller D, Jaye C. GPs’ perception of their role in the identification and management of family violence. Fam Pract 2007;24:95–101.
  116. Featherstone B, Fraser C. Working with fathers around domestic violence: Contemporary debates. Child Abuse Review 2012;21:255–63.
  117. Smedslund G, Dalsbø T, Steiro A, et al. Cognitive behavioural therapy for men who physically abuse their female partner. Cochrane Re-view. The Cochrane Library, 2011.
  118. Urbis. Literature Review on Domestic Violence Perpetrators
  119. Hanson RF, Kievit LW, Saunders BE, et al. Correlates of adolescent reports of sexual assault: Findings from the National Survey of Ado-lescents. Child Maltreatment 2003;8:261–72.
  120. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Child Protection Australia 2011–12. Canberra: Australian Government, 2013.
  121. World Health Organization, International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Preventing child maltreatment: a guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva: WHO, 2006.
  122. Barlow J, Johnston I, Kendrick D, et al. Individual and group-based parenting programmes for the treatment of physical child abuse and neglect. Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Library, 2008.
  123. Sanders M, Markie-Dadds C, Turner K. Theoretical, scientific and clinical foundations of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A pop-ulation approach to parenting competency. The Parenting and Family Support Centre: University of Queensland, 2003.
  124. Mikton CA. Child maltreatment prevention: a systematic review of reviews. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2009;87:353–61.
  125. World Health Organization. Child maltreatment and alcohol. Geneva: WHO, 2006.
  126. World Health Organization. Child maltreatment fact sheet 2010
  127. Gilbert R, Widom CS, Browne K, et al. Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet 2009;373:68–81.
  128. Australian Institute of Family Studies. The economic costs of child abuse and neglect 2013
  129. Taylor P, Moore P, Pezzullo L, et al. The cost of child abuse in Australia. Melbourne: Australian Childhood Foundation and Child Abuse Prevention Research Australia, 2008.
  130. Australian Institute of Family Studies. Child deaths from abuse and neglect 2014
  131. Brown T, Tyson D, Fernandez P. Filicide in Australia. Addressing Filicide: The International Conference; Prato, Italy, 30–31 May 2013.
  132. Dawe S, Harnett P, Frye S. Improving outcomes for children living in families with parental substance misuse: What we know and what we should do. Canberra: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2008.
  133. Perry BD. Examining child maltreatment through a neurodevelopmental lens: clinical applications of the Neurosequential Model of Therapeutics. J Loss Trauma 2009;14:240–55.
  134. Geeraert L, van den Noortgate W, Grietens H, et al. The effects of early prevention programs for families with young children at risk for physical child abuse and neglect: a meta-analysis. Child Maltreatment 2004;9:277–91.
  135. Zwi K, Woolfenden S, Wheeler D, et al. School-based education programmes for the prevention of child abuse. Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Library, 2009.
  136. Norman R, Munkhtsetseg B, Rumma D, et al. The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLos Med 2012;9:e1001349.
  137. Meredith V, Price-Robertson R. Alcohol misuse and child maltreatment. Australian Government, Australian Institute of Family Studies; 2011.
  138. Jensen TK, Gulbrandsen W, Mossige S, et al. Reporting possible sexual abuse: A qualitative study on children’s perspectives and the context for disclosure. Child Abuse Negl 2005;29:1395–413.
  139. Fontes LA, Plummer C. Cultural issues in disclosures of child sexual sbuse. J Child Sex Abus 2010;19:491–518.
  140. Foynes MM, Freyd JJ, DePrince AP. Child abuse: Betrayal and disclosure. Child Abuse Negl 2009;33:209–17.
  141. Macdonald G, Higgins J, Ramchandani P, et al. Cognitive-behavioural interventions for children who have been sexually abused. Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Library, 2012.
  142. Australian Institute of Family Studies. Mandatory reporting of child abuse and neglect. Commonwealth of Australia, 2013.
  143. Gini G. Associations between bullying behaviour, psychosomatic complaints, emotional and behavioural problems. J Paediatr Child Health 2008;44:492–7.
  144. Jones L, Bellis MA, Wood S, et al. Prevalence and risk of violence against children with disabilities: a systematic review and me-ta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet 2012;380:899–907.
  145. Ttofi MM, Farrington DP. Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review. J Exp Crim-inol 2011;7:27–56.
  146. Williams LC, Stelko-Pereira AC. Let’s prevent school violence, not just bullying and peer victimization: a commentary on Finkelhor, Turner, and Hamby (2012). Child Abuse Negl 2013;37:235–6.
  147. Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Hamby SL. Bullying vs. school violence: A response to Williams and Stelko-Pereira (2013). Child Abuse Negl 2013;37:608–9.
  148. Ybarra ML, Boyd D, Korchmaros JD, et al. Defining and measuring cyberbullying within the larger context of bullying victimization. J Ad-olesc Health 2012;51:53–8.
  149. Menesini E, Nocentini A, Palladino BE, et al. Cyberbullying definition among adolescents: a comparison across six European countries. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2012;15:455–63.
  150. Slee PT, Spears B, Campbell M, et al. Addressing bullying and cyberbullying in schools: Translating theory into practice. Centre for Stra-tegic Education, 2011.
  151. Fisher S, Sauter A, Slobodniuk L, et al. Sexting in Australia: The Legal and Social Ramifications. Melbourne: Parliament of Victoria Law Reform Committee Sexting Inquiry, 2012.
  152. Walker S, Sanci L, Temple-Smith M. Sexting: Young women’s and men’s views on its nature and origins. J Adolesc Health 2013;52:697–701.
  153. Butler D, Kift S, Campbell M, et al. School policy responses to cyberbullying: An Australian legal perspective. Int J Law Educ 2011;16:7–28.
  154. Finkelhor D, Turner HA, Hamby S. Let’s prevent peer victimization, not just bullying. Child Abuse Negl 2012;36:271–4.
  155. Tucker CJ, Finkelhor D, Turner H, et al. Association of sibling aggression with child and adolescent mental health. Pediatrics 2013;132:79–84.
  156. Skinner JA, Kowalski RM. Profiles of sibling bullying. J Interpers Violence 2013;28:1726–36.
  157. Wolke D, Skew AJ. Bullying among siblings. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2012;24:17–25.
  158. Craig W, Harel-Fisch Y, Fogel-Grinvald H, et al. A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries. Int J Public Health 2009;54 Suppl 2:216–24.
  159. Due P, Holstein BE, Soc MS. Bullying victimization among 13 to 15-year-old school children: results from two comparative studies in 66 countries and regions. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2008;20:209–21.
  160. Gan SS, Zhong C, Das S, et al. The prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying in high school: a 2011 survey. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2013 22:1–5.
  161. Hemphill SA, Kotevski A, Tollit M, et al. Longitudinal predictors of cyber and traditional bullying perpetration in Australian secondary school students. Journal Adolesc Health 2012;51:59–65.
  162. Cross D, Shaw T, Hearn L, et al. Australian Covert Bullying Prevalence Study. Child Health Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan University, May 2009.
  163. Waseem M, Ryan M, Foster CB, et al. Assessment and management of bullied children in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 2013 29:389–98.
  164. Undheim AM, Sund AM. Bullying – a hidden factor behind somatic symptoms? Acta Paediatr (Oslo, Norway: 1992) 2011;100:496–8.
  165. Carr-Gregg M, Manocha R. Bullying – effects, prevalence and strategies for detection. Aust Fam Physician 2011;40:98–102.
  166. Daigle L, Beaver K, Turner M. Resiliency against victimization: Results from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. J Crim Justice 2010;38.
  167. Cappadocia MC, Weiss JA, Pepler D. Bullying experiences among children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Dis-ord 2012;42:266–77.
  168. Sentenac M, Gavin A, Gabhainn SN, et al. Peer victimization and subjective health among students reporting disability or chronic illness in 11 Western countries. Eur J Public Health 2013;23:421–6.
  169. Mindmatters. Community matters-rural and remote issues. In: Bullying in rural settings. Canberra: Commonwealth Australia, 2010.
  170. Merrell K, Isava M. How effective are school bullying intervention programs? A meta-analysis of intervention research. Sch Psychol Q 2008;23:26–42.
  171. Vreeman RC, Carroll AE. A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007;161:78–88.
  172. Karna A, Voeten M, Little TD, et al. A large-scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program: grades 4–6. Child Dev 2011;82:311–30.
  173. Salmivalli C, Poskiparta E. Making bullying prevention a priority in Finnish schools: the KiVa antibullying program. New Dir Youth Dev 2012:41–53.
  174. Williford A, Boulton A, Noland B, et al. Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on adolescents’ depression, anxiety, and perception of peers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2012;40:289–300.
  175. Williford A, Elledge LC, Boulton AJ, et al. Effects of the KiVa Antibullying program on cyberbullying and cybervictimization frequency among Finnish youth. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2013;42:820–33.
  176. Leff SS, Waasdorp TE. Effect of aggression and bullying on children and adolescents: implications for prevention and intervention. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013;15:343.
  177. Hensley V. Childhood bullying: a review and implications for health care professionals. Nurs Clin North Am 2013;48:203–13.
  178. Copeland WE, Wolke D, Angold A, et al. Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adoles-cence. JAMA psychiatry 2013;70:419–26.
  179. Ortega R, Elipe P, Mora-Merchan JA, et al. The emotional impact of bullying and cyberbullying on victims: a European cross-national study. Aggress Behav 2012;38:342–56.
  180. Ramya SG, Kulkarni ML. Bullying among school children: prevalence and association with common symptoms in childhood. Indian J Pediatr 2011;78:307–10.
  181. Gini G, Pozzoli T. Association between bullying and psychosomatic problems: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2009;123:1059–65.
  182. Sansone RA, Sansone LA. Bully victims: psychological and somatic aftermaths. Psychiatry 2008;5:62–4.
  183. Campbell M, Slee PT, Spears B. Do cyberbullies suffer too? Cyberbullies’ perceptions of the harm they cause to others and to their own mental health. International School Psychology 2012;1:1–27.
  184. Campbell M, Spears B, Slee PT, et al. Victims’ perceptions of traditional and cyberbullying, and the psychosocial correlates of their vic-timisation. J Emotional Behavioural Difficulties 2012;17.
  185. Perren S, Dooley J, Shaw T, et al. Bullying in school and cyberspace: Associations with depressive symptoms in Swiss and Australian adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2010;4.
  186. Shetgiri R, Lin H, Flores G. Trends in risk and protective factors for child bullying perpetration in the United States. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2013;44:89–104.
  187. Kowalski RM, Limber SP. Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. J Adolesc Health 2013;53:S13–20.
  188. Espelage DL, De La Rue L. School bullying: its nature and ecology. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2012;24:3–10.
  189. Hemphill SA, Kotevski A, Herrenkohl TI, et al. Longitudinal consequences of adolescent bullying perpetration and victimisation: a study of students in Victoria, Australia. Crim Behav Ment Health 2011;21:107–16.
  190. Boynton-Jarrett R, Ryan LM, Berkman LF, et al. Cumulative violence exposure and self-rated health: longitudinal study of adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics 2008;122:961–70.
  191. Fekkes M, Pijpers FI, Fredriks AM, et al. Do bullied children get ill, or do ill children get bullied? A prospective cohort study on the rela-tionship between bullying and health-related symptoms. Pediatrics 2006;117:1568–74.
  192. Allison S, Roeger L, Reinfeld-Kirkman N. Does school bullying affect adult health? Population survey of health-related quality of life and past victimization. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2009;43:1163–70.
  193. Sourander A, Jensen P, Ronning JA, et al. What is the early adulthood outcome of boys who bully or are bullied in childhood? The Finn-ish ‘From a Boy to a Man’ study. Pediatrics 2007;120:397–404.
  194. Niemela S, Brunstein-Klomek A, Sillanmaki L, et al. Childhood bullying behaviors at age eight and substance use at age 18 among males. A nationwide prospective study. Addict Behav 2011;36:256–60.
  195. Schreier A, Wolke D, Thomas K, et al. Prospective study of peer victimization in childhood and psychotic symptoms in a nonclinical population at age 12 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:527–36.
  196. Ttofi MM, Farrington DP, Losel F, et al. The predictive efficiency of school bullying versus later offending: a systematic/meta-analytic re-view of longitudinal studies. Crim Behav Ment Health 2011;21:80–9.
  197. Falb KL, McCauley HL, Decker MR, et al. School bullying perpetration and other childhood risk factors as predictors of adult intimate partner violence perpetration. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011;165:890–4.
  198. Turner HA, Finkelhor D, Hamby SL, et al. Specifying type and location of peer victimization in a national sample of children and youth. J Youth Adolesc 2011;40:1052–67.
  199. Sijtsema JJ, Veenstra R, Lindenberg S, et al. Empirical test of bullies’ status goals: assessing direct goals, aggression, and prestige. Ag-gress Behav 2009;35:57–67.
  200. Reijntjes A, Vermande M, Olthof T, et al. Costs and benefits of bullying in the context of the peer group: a three wave longitudinal analy-sis. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2013;41:1217–29.
  201. Kulig JC, Hall BL, Kalischuk RG. Bullying perspectives among rural youth: a mixed methods approach. Rural Remote Health 2008;8:923.
  202. Karna A, Voeten M, Little TD, et al. Going to scale: a nonrandomized nationwide trial of the KiVa antibullying program for grades 1-9. J Consult Clinical Psychol 2011;79:796–805.
  203. Pepler D, Jiang D, Craig W, et al. Developmental trajectories of bullying and associated factors. Child Dev 2008;79:325–38.
  204. Wolke D, Samara MM. Bullied by siblings: association with peer victimisation and behaviour problems in Israeli lower secondary school children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2004;45:1015–29.
  205. Holt KE, Kantor, Finkelhor D. Parent/child concordance about bullying involvement and family characteristics related to bullying and peer victimization. J School Violence 2008;8:42–63.
  206. Lamb J, Pepler DJ, Craig W. Approach to bullying and victimization. Can Family Physician 2009;55:356–60.
  207. Lyznicki JM, McCaffree MA, Robinowitz CB. Childhood bullying: implications for physicians. Am Fam Physician 2004;70:1723–8.
  208. Dawkins J. Bullying in schools: doctors’ responsibilities. BMJ 1995;310:274–5.
  209. Slee PT, Mohyla J. The PEACE Pack: an evaluation to reduce bullying in four Australian primary schools. Educational Research 2007;49:103–14.
  210. Committee on Injury V, and Poison Prevention. Policy statement – Role of the pediatrician in youth violence prevention. Pediatrics 2009;124:393–402.
  211. Usherwood T. Understanding the consultation. Open University Press, 999.
  212. Lee A, Coles J, Lee SJ, et al. Women survivors of child abuse – don’t ask, don’t tell. Aust Fam Physician 2012;41:903–6.
  213. Ogloff JR, Cutajar MC, Mann E, et al. Child sexual abuse and subsequent offending and victimisation: A 45 year follow-up study. Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice no.440. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, June 2012.
  214. De Visser RO, Smith AMA, Rissel CE, et al. Experiences of sexual coercion among a representation sample of adults. Aust N Z J Public Health 2003;27:198–203.
  215. Hayatbakhsh MR, Najman JM, Jamrozik K, et al. Childhood sexual abuse and cannabis use in early adulthood: Findings from an Austral-ian birth cohort study. Arch Sex Behav 2009;38:135–42.
  216. Higgins DJ, McCabe MP. Multiple forms of child abuse and neglect: Adult retrospective reports. Aggress Violent Behav 2001;6:547–78.
  217. Indermaur D. Young Australians and domestic violence. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2001.
  218. Mamun AA, Lawlor DA, O’Callaghan MJ, et al. Does childhood sexual abuse predict young adult’s BMI? A birth cohort study. Obesity 2007;15:2103–10.
  219. Mazza D, Dennerstein L, Garamszegi CV, et al. The physical, sexual and emotional violence history of middle-aged women: A communi-ty-based prevalence study. Med J Aust 2001;175:199–201.
  220. Moore E, Romaniuk H, Olsson C, et al. The prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and adolescent unwanted sexual contact among boys and girls living in Victoria, Australia. Child Abuse Negl 2010;23:379–85.
  221. Mouzos J, Makkai T. Women’s experiences of male violence: Findings from the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS). Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004.
  222. Najman JM, Dunne MP, Purdie DM, et al. Sexual abuse in childhood and sexual dysfunction in adulthood: An Australian population-based study. Arch Sex Behav 2005;34:517–26.
  223. Price-Robertson R, Smart D, Bromfield L. Family is for life: How childhood experiences within the family help or hinder the lives of young adults. Fam Matters 2010;85:7–17.
  224. Rosenman S, Rodgers B. Childhood adversity in an Australian population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2004;39:695–702.
  225. Adults Surviving Child Abuse (ASCA). ASCA 1300 Professional Support Line Research, October 2013.
  226. Chartier MJ, Walker JR, Naimark B. Childhood abuse, adult health, and health care utilization: results from a representative community sample. Am J Epidemiol 2007;165:1031–8.
  227. Cutajar MC, Mullen PE, Ogloff JRP, et al. Psychopathology in a large cohort of sexually abused children followed up to 43 years. Child Abuse Negl 2010;34:813–22.
  228. Scott JG, Cohen D, DiCicco-Bloom B, et al. Understanding healing relationships in primary care. Ann Fam Med 2008;6:315–22.
  229. Holden T. ‘It’s still not my shame’ Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse report, May 2002.
  230. Kezelman C, Stavropoulos P. The Last Frontier: Practice Guidelines for Treatment of Complex Trauma and Trauma Informed Care and Service Delivery. Sydney: Adults Surviving Child Abuse, 2012.
  231. Australian Institute of Criminology. Australian Crimes: Facts and figures. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2013.
  232. Jozkowski KN, Sanders SA. Health and sexual outcomes of women who have experienced forced or coercive sex. Women Health 2012;52:101–18.
  233. Miller TR, Cohen MA, Wiersema B. Victim costs and consequences: A new look – National Institute of Justice Research Report. Maryland: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 1996.
  234. Samuels JE, Thacker SB. Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women. Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey: National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000.
  235. Hurley M, Parker H, Wells DL. The epidemiology of drug facilitated sexual assault. J Clin Forensic Med 2006;13:181–5.
  236. Tucker JS, Wenzel SL, Straus JB, Ryan GW, Golinelli D. Experiencing interpersonal violence: perspectives of sexually active, sub-stance-using women living in shelters and low-income housing. Violence Against Women 2005;11:1319–40.
  237. Murray S, Powell A. Sexual assault and adults with a disability. Enabling recognition, disclosure and a just response. Melbourne: Austral-ian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault, 2008.
  238. VanZile-Tamsen C, Testa M, Livingston JA. The impact of sexual assault history and relationship context on appraisal of and responses to acquaintance sexual assault risk. J Interpers Violence 2005;20:813–32.
  239. Loh C, Gidycz CA. A prospective analysis of the relationship between childhood sexual victimization and perpetration of dating violence and sexual assault in adulthood. J Interpers Violence 2006;21:732–49.
  240. Morrison Z. Homelessness and sexual assault. Melbourne: Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault, 2009.
  241. Quadara A. Sex workers and sexual assault in Australia. Melbourne: Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault, 2008.
  242. Tarczon C, Quadara A. The nature and extent of sexual assault and abuse in Australia. Melbourne: Australia Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault, 2012.
  243. Amowitz LL, Reis C, Lyons KH, et al. Prevalence of war-related sexual violence and other human rights abuses among internally dis-placed persons in Sierra Leone. JAMA 2002;287:513–21.
  244. Burgess AW, Holmstrom LL. Rape trauma syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1974;131:981–6.
  245. Green AH. Child sexual abuse: immediate and long-term effects and intervention. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993;32:890–902.
  246. World Health Organization. Guidelines for medico-legal care of sexual violence survivors. Geneva: WHO, 2003.
  247. Mein JK, Palmer CM, Shand MC, et al. Management of acute adult sexual assault. Med J Aust 2003;178:226–30.
  248. Post L, Page C, Conner T, Prokhorov A, Fang Y, Biroscak BJ. Elder abuse in long-term care: types, patterns, and risk factors. Res Aging 2010;32:323–48.
  249. Johannesen M, LoGiudice D. Elder abuse: a systematic review of risk factors in community-dwelling elders. Age Ageing 2013;42:292–8.
  250. Australian Medical Association. AMA Position Statement on Care of Older People 1998 – amended 2000 and 2011, 2011.
  251. Glasgow K, Fanslow J. Family Violence Intervention Guidelines: Elder abuse and neglect. Wellington: Ministry of Health, 2006.
  252. World Health Organization. Elder maltreatment fact sheet. Geneva: WHO, 2011.
  253. Schofield MJ, Powers JR, Loxton D. Mortality and disability outcomes of self-reported elder abuse: a 12-year prospective investigation. J Am Geriatr Soc 2013;61:679–85.
  254. Kurrle S, Naughtin G. An overview of elder abuse and neglect in Australia. J Elder Abuse Negl 2008;20:108–25.
  255. Kurrle SE, Sadler PM, Cameron ID. Elder abuse – an Australian case series. Med J Aust 1991;155:150–3.
  256. Kurrle SE, Sadler PM, Lockwood K, Cameron I. Elder abuse: prevalence, intervention and outcomes in patients referred to four aged care assessment teams. Med J Aust 1997;166:119.
  257. Livermore P, Bunt R, Biscan K. Elder Abuse among Clients and Carers Referred to the Central Coast ACAT: a Descriptive Analysis. Aus-tralas J Ageing 2001;20:41–7.
  258. Acierno R, Hernandez MA, Amstadter AB, et al. Prevalence and correlates of emotional, physical, sexual, and financial abuse and poten-tial neglect in the United States: the National Elder Mistreatment Study. Am J Public Health 2010;100:292–7.
  259. National Centre on Elder Abuse. Fact Sheet: Elder Abuse Prevalence and Incidence. Washington: National Centre on Elder Abuse, 2005.
  260. Elder Abuse Prevention Project. Strengthening Victoria’s Response to Elder Abuse. Melbourne: State Government of Victoria, Department for Victorian Communities, 2005.
  261. The Senate Committee of Inquiry. Quality and equity in aged care report. Canberra: Commonwealth Government of Australia, 2005.
  262. Yaffe MJ, Tazkarji B. Understanding elder abuse in family practice. Can Fam Physician 2012;58:1336–40.
  263. Cupitt M. Identifying and addressing the issues of elder abuse: a rural perspective. J Elder Abuse Negl 1997;8:21–30.
  264. Eastgate G, van Deil M, Lennox N, Scheermeyer E. Women with intellectual disabilities – study of sexuality, sexual abuse and protection skills. Aust Fam Physician 2011;40:226–30.
  265. Eastgate G, Scheermeyer E, van Driel M, Lennox M. Intellectual disability, sexuality and sexual abuse prevention – a study of family mem-bers and support workers. Aust Fam Physician 2012;41:135–9.
  266. Hughes K, Bellis MA, Jones L, et al. Prevalence and risk of violence against adults with disabilities: a systematic review and me-ta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet 2012;379:1621–9.
  267. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Disability, ageing and carers. Australia: summary of findings 2009. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2011.
  268. Intellectual Disability Rights Service. Legal Advice, 2014
  269. Jenkins R, Davies R. Neglect of people with intellectual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil 2006;10:35–45.
  270. Khemka I, Hickson L, Reynolds G. Evaluation of a decision-making curriculum to empower women with mental retardation to resist abuse. Am J Ment Retard 2005;105:193–204.
  271. Barger E, Wacker J, Macy R, Parish S. Sexual assault prevention for women with intellectual disabilities: a critical review of the evidence. Intellect Dev Disabil 2009;47:249–62.
  272. Johnson K, Frawley P, Hillier L, et al. Living Safer Sexual Lives: Research and Action. Tizard Learning Disability Review 2002;7.
  273. National Disability Insurance Scheme Launch Transition Agency (National Disability Insurance Agency). National Disability Insurance Scheme
  274. Gordon S, Hallahan K, Henry D. Putting the picture together: Inquiry into response by government agencies to complaints of family vio-lence and child abuse in Aboriginal communities. Perth: State Law Publisher, 2002.
  275. Mow KE. Tjunparni: Family violence in Indigenous Australia. Canberra: ATSIC, 1992.
  276. Mullighan EP. Children on Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands Commission of Inquiry. A report into sexual abuse. Adelaide: South Australian Government, 2008.
  277. NSW Aboriginal Child Sexual Assault Taskforce. Breaking the silence: Creating the future. Addressing child sexual assault in Aboriginal communities in NSW. Sydney: NSW Government, 2006.
  278. Robertson B. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s Taskforce on Violence Report. Brisbane: Queensland Government, 1999.
  279. Victorian Indigenous Family Violence Task Force. Victorian Indigenous Family Violence Task Force Final Report. Melbourne: Depart-ment of Victorian Communities, 2003.
  280. Wild R, Anderson P. Ampe Akelyernemane Meke Mekarle: Little Children are Sacred. Report of the Northern Territory Government Inquiry into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse. Darwin: Department of the Chief Minister, 2007.
  281. Victorian Government Department of Justice. Measuring Family Violence in Victoria – Victorian Family Violence Database: Seven Year Trend Analysis 1999–2006. Melbourne: Department of Justice, 2008.
  282. Berrios D, Grady D. Domestic violence: risk factors and outcomes. West J Med 1991;155:133–6.
  283. Campbell J, Lewandowski L. Mental and Physical Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Women and Children. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1997;20:353–74.
  284. Langton M. The end of big men politics. Griffith Review 2008;22:13–38.
  285. Cripps K, Adams M. Family Violence: Pathways Forward. In: Dudgeon P, Milroy H, Walker R, editors. Working Together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and Practice. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2014:399–416.
  286. Australian Human Rights Commission. Social Justice Report 2011. Sydney: Australian Human Rights Commission, 2011.
  287. Cripps K. Enough family fighting: Indigenous community responses to addressing family violence in Australia and the United States. Melbourne: Monash University, 2004.
  288. Dibble U, Straus M. Some social structure determinants of inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour: The case of family violence. J Marriage Fam 1980;42:71–80.
  289. Gill C, Theriault L. Connecting social determinants of health and woman abuse: A discussion paper. Charlottetown: University of Prince Edward Island, 2005.
  290. Malcoe L, Duran B. Intimate partner violence and injury in the lives of low-income Native American women. In: Fisher B, editor. Develop-ments in research practice and policy: Violence against women and family violence. Washington: US Department of Justice, 2004.
  291. Malcoe L, Duran B, Montgomery J. Socioeconomic disparities in intimate partner violence against Native American women: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medicine 2004;2.
  292. Oetzel JG, Duran B. Intimate partner violence in American Indian and/or Alaska Native communities: A social ecological framework of de-terminants and interventions. The American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research: A Journal of the National Center. 2004;11:49–68.
  293. Raphael J, Tolman R. Trapped by poverty/trapped by abuse: New evidence documenting the relationship between domestic violence and welfare. Chicago: Taylor Institute and the University of Michigan Research Development Center on Poverty, Risk and Mental Health, 1997.
  294. Cripps K, Bennett C, Gurrin L, Studdert D. Victims of violence among Indigenous mothers with dependent children. Med J Aust 2009;191:481–5.
  295. Day A, Howells K, Nakata M, et al. The development of culturally appropriate anger management programs for Indigenous people in Aus-tralian prison settings. Int J Offender Rehab Comp Criminol 2006;50:520–39.
  296. White M. Pathways to a good life well lived: Community-owned recovery plan for overcoming suicidal despair in the Fitzroy Valley. Fitz-roy Crossing: Marninwarntikura Fitzroy Women’s Resource and Legal Centre, Marra Worra Worra Aboriginal Corporation, Nindilingarri Cultural Health and Kimberley Aboriginal Law and Cultural Centre, 2011.
  297. Raj A, Silverman JG, McCleary-Sills J, Liu R. Immigration policies increase south Asian immigrant women’s vulnerability to intimate part-ner violence. J Am Med Womens Assoc 2005;60:26–32.
  298. Baba Y, Murray SB. Spousal abuse: Vietnamese reports of parental violence. J Sociol Soc Welf 2003;30:97.
  299. Khosla AH, Dua D, Devi L, Sud SS. Domestic violence in pregnancy in North Indian women. Indian J Med Sci 2005;59:195–9.
  300. The Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture Inc. Caring for Refugee patients in General Practice: A Desktop Guide. 4th edn. The Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture Inc, 2012.
  301. Echevarria A, Johar A. Beyond bitter moments: Non-English speaking women’s access to support services for survivors of domestic vio-lence. Fairfield West: Ettinger House, 1987.
  302. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2071.0 – Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 census, 2012–2013. Cultural Diversity in Australia. Can-berra: ABS, 2012 [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  303. Garcia-Moreno C, Jansen HAFM, Ellsberg M, et al. Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multicountry study on women’s health and domestic violence. Lancet 2006;368:1260–9. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  304. Silverman JG, Decker MR, Saggurti N, Balaiah D, Raj A. Intimate partner violence and HIV infection among married Indian women. JAMA 2008;300:703–10. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  305. Vung ND, Ostergren PO, Krantz G. Intimate partner violence against women in rural Vietnam – different socio-demographic factors are associated with different forms of violence: Need for new intervention guidelines? BMC Public Health 2008;8. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  306. Raj A, Liu R, McCleary-Sills J, Silverman JG. South Asian victims of intimate partner violence more likely than non-victims to report sexual health concerns. J Immigr Health 2005;7:85–91. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  307. Raj A, Silverman JG. Intimate partner violence against South Asian women in greater Boston. J Am Med Womens Assoc 2002;57:111–4. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  308. Abramsky T, Watts CH, Garcia-Moreno C, et al. What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health 2011;11. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  309. Ellsberg M, Jansen HA, Heise L, et al. Intimate partner violence and women’s physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence: an observational study. Lancet 2008;371:1165–72. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  310. Kumar S, Jeyaseelan L, Suresh S, et al. Domestic violence and its mental health correlates in Indian women. Br J Psychiatry 2005;187:62–7. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  311. Rodriguez M, Saba G. Cultural competence and intimate partner abuse: health care interventions. In: Roberts G, Hegarty K, Feder G, edi-tors. Intimate partner abuse and health professionals: New approaches to domestic violence. London: Churchill Livingstone Else-vier, 2006. p. 179–96. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  312. Hegarty K, Taft A, Feder G. Violence between intimate partners: working with the whole family. BMJ 2008;337. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  313. Mezey G, King M, MacClintock T. Victims of violence and the general practitioner. Br J Gen Pract 1998;48:906–8. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  314. NSW Health Department. NSW Health – Domestic Violence Policy Discussion Paper. Gladesville: NSW Dept Health, 1999. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  315. Coles J, Dartnall E, Astbury J. Preventing the pain when working with family and sexual violence in primary care. Int J Fam Med 2013;2013:7. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  316. Rowe L, Kidd M. First do no harm: being a resilient doctor in the 21st century. North Ryde: McGraw-Hill Australia, 2009. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  317. Weiner E, Swain G, Wolf B, Gottlieb M. A qualitative study of physicians’ own wellness-promotion practices. West J Med 2001;174:19–23. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  318. Clode D, Boldero J. Keeping the doctor alive – a self care guide book for medical practitioners. Melbourne: The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, 2005. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  319. Hudnall-Stamm B. Secondary traumatic stress: self-care issues for clinicians, researchers and educators. Lutherville: Sidran Press, 1995. [Accessed 18 October 2013].
  320. National Centre for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Working with trauma survivors: what workers need to know. National Centre for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Washington: Department for Veteran’s Affairs, 2007 [Accessed May 2014].
  321. Saakvitne K, Pearlman L. Transforming the pain: a workbook on vicarious traumatisation. London: Norton; 1996. [Accessed May 2014].
  322. Bloom S. Caring for the Caregiver: Avoiding and Treating Vicarious Traumatization. In: Giardino A, Datner E, Asher J, editors. Sexual As-sault, Victimization Across the Lifespan. Maryland Heights: GW Medical Publishing, 2003. p. 459–70. [Accessed May 2014].
  323. Benson J, Thistlethwaite J. Mental Health Across Cultures. A practical guide for health professionals. Abingdon: Radcliffe Publishing Ltd, 2009. [Accessed May 2014].
  324. Snowdon T, Benson J, Proudfoot J. Capacity and the quality framework. Aust Fam Physician 2007;36:12–4. [Accessed May 2014].
  325. Stevenson A, Phillips C, Anderson K. Resilience among doctors who work in challenging areas: a qualitative study. Brit J Gen Pract 2011:404–10. [Accessed May 2014].
  326. Edwards N, Kornacki M, Silversin J. Unhappy doctors: what are the causes and what can be done? BMJ 2002;324:835–38. [Accessed May 2014].
  327. Freeborn D. Satisfaction, commitment, and psychological well-being among HMO physicians. West J Med 2001;174:13–28. [Accessed May 2014].
  328. Figley C. Coping with traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1995. [Accessed May 2014].
  329. Adults Surviving Child Abuse (ASCA). Best practice guidelines for working with adults surviving child abuse (Accessed 2014).
  330. Taft A, Small R, Humphreys C, Hegarty K, Walter R, Adams C, Agius P. Enhanced maternal and child health nurse care for women experi-encing intimate partner/family violence: protocol for MOVE, a cluster randomised trial of screening and referral in primary health care. BMC Public Health 2012;12:811
  331. Gath DH, Mynors-Wallis LM. Problem-solving treatment in primary care. In: Clark DM, Fairburn CG, editors. Science and practice of cog-nitive behaviour therapy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
This event attracts CPD points and can be self recorded

Did you know you can now log your CPD with a click of a button?

Create Quick log