National guide to a preventive health assessment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

Appendix

Appendix 1. Stages of adolescent development¹
	Early (10–13 years)	Middle (14–17 years)	Late (18–21 years)
Central question	‘Am I normal?’	‘Who am I?’ ‘Where do I belong?’	‘Where am I going?’
Major developmental issues	Coming to terms with puberty Struggle for autonomy commences Same-sex peer relationships all important Mood swings	New intellectual powers New sexual drives Experimentation and risk taking Relationships have self-centred quality Need for peer group acceptance Emergence of sexual identity	Independence from parents Realistic body image Acceptance of sexual identity Clear educational and vocational goals, own value system Developing mutually caring and responsible relationships
Main concerns	Anxieties about body shape and changes Comparison with peers	Tensions between family and adolescent over independence Balancing demands of family and peers Prone to fad behaviour and risk taking Strong need for privacy Maintaining ethnic identity while striving to fit in with dominant culture	Self-responsibility Achieving economic independence Deciding on career/vocation options Developing intimate relationships
Cognitive development	Still fairly concrete thinkers Less able to understand subtlety Daydreaming common Difficulty identifying how their immediate behaviour impacts on the future	Able to think more rationally Concerned about individual freedom and rights Able to accept more responsibility for consequences of own behaviour Begins to take on greater responsibility within family as part of cultural identity	Longer attention span Ability to think more abstractly More able to synthesise information and apply it to themselves Able to think into the future and anticipate consequences of their actions
_{Reproduced from Chown P, Kang M, Sanci L, Newnham V, Bennett DL. Adolescent health GP resource kit: Enhancing the skills of general practitioners in caring for young people from culturally diverse backgrounds. 2nd edn. Westmead, NSW: NSW Centre for the Advancement of Adolescent Health and Transcultural Mental Health Centre, 2008. [Accessed 20 November 2017].}

Appendix 2. HEEADSSS assessment^28,99

Assessment area

Questions

H – Home

Explore home situation, family life, relationships and stability

Where do you live? Who lives at home with you?

Who is in your family (parents, siblings, extended family)?

What is your/your family’s cultural background?

What language is spoken at home?

Does the family have friends from outside its own cultural group/from the same cultural group?

Do you have your own room?

Have there been any recent changes in your family/home recently (moves, departures, etc)?

How do you get along with your mum and dad and other members of your family?

Are there any fights at home? If so, what do you and/or your family argue about the most?

Who are you closest to in your family?

Who could you go to if you needed help with a problem?

E – Education/

employment

Explore sense of belonging at school/work and relationships with teachers/peers/workmates, changes in performance

What do you like/not like about school/work? What are you good at/not good at?

How do you get along with teachers/other students/workmates?

How do you usually perform in different subjects?

What problems do you experience at school/work?

Some young people experience bullying at school, have you ever had to put up with this?

What are your goals for future education/employment?

Any recent changes in education/employment?

E – Eating/ exercise

Explore how they look after themselves, eating and sleeping patterns

What do you usually eat for breakfast/lunch/dinner?

Sometimes when people are stressed they can overeat, or under-eat. Do you ever find yourself doing either of these?

Have there been any recent changes in your weight? In your dietary habits?

What do you like/not like about your body?

If screening more specifically for eating disorders, you may ask about body image, the use of laxatives, diuretics, vomiting, excessive exercise, and rigid dietary restrictions to control weight.

What do you do for exercise?

How much exercise do you get in an average day/week?

A – Activities/peer relationships

Explore their social and interpersonal relationships, risk-taking behaviour, as well as their attitudes about themselves

What sort of things do you do in your free time out of school/work?

What do you like to do for fun?

Who are your main friends (at school/out of school)?

Do you have friends from outside your own cultural group/from the same cultural group?

How do you get on with others your own age?

How do you think your friends would describe you?

What are some of the things you like about yourself?

What sort of things do you like to do with your friends? How much television do you watch each night? What’s your favourite music?

Are you involved in sports/hobbies/clubs/other activities?

D – Drug use/ cigarettes/ alcohol

Explore the context of substance use (if any) and risk-taking behaviours

Many young people at your age are starting to experiment with cigarettes/drugs/alcohol. Have any of your friends tried these or other drugs such as marijuana, injecting drugs, other substances?

How about you, have you tried any?

If ‘Yes’, explore further.

How much do you use and how often?

How do you (and your friends) take/use them?

Explore safe/unsafe use, binge drinking and so on.

What effects do drug taking/smoking/alcohol have on you?

Has your use increased recently?

What sort of things do you (and your friends) do when you take drugs/drink?

How do you pay for the drugs/alcohol?

Have you had any problems as a result of your alcohol/drug use (with police, school, family, friends)? Do other family members take drugs/drink?

S – Sexuality

Explore their knowledge, understanding, experience, sexual orientation and sexual practices – look for risk-taking behaviour/abuse

Many young people your age become interested in romance and sometimes sexual relationships. Have you been in any romantic relationships or been dating anyone?

Have you ever had a sexual relationship with a boy or a girl (or both)?

If ‘Yes’, explore further.

[If sexually active] What do you use to protect yourself (condoms, contraception)?

What do you know about contraception and protection against STIs?

How do you feel about relationships in general or about your own sexuality?

[For older adolescents] Do you identify yourself as being heterosexual or gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender or questioning?

Have you ever felt pressured or uncomfortable about having sex?

S – Suicide/ self harm/ depression/ mood

Explore risk of mental health problems, strategies for coping and available support

Sometimes when people feel really down they feel like hurting themselves, or even killing themselves. Have you ever felt that way?

Have you ever deliberately harmed or injured yourself (cutting, burning or putting yourself in unsafe situations – eg unsafe sex)?

What prevented you from going ahead with it?

How did you try to harm/kill yourself?

What happened to you after this?

What do you do if you are feeling sad, angry or hurt?

Do you feel sad or down more than usual? How long have you felt that way?

Have you lost interest in things you usually like?

How do you feel in yourself at the moment on a scale of 1 to 10?

Who can you talk to when you’re feeling down?

How often do you feel this way?

How well do you usually sleep?

It’s normal to feel anxious in certain situations. Do you ever feel very anxious, nervous or stressed (eg in social situations)?

Have you ever felt really anxious all of a sudden? For a particular reason?

Do you worry about your body or your weight? Do you do things to try and manage your weight (eg dieting)? Sometimes, especially when feeling really stressed, people can hear or see things that others don’t seem to hear or see. Has this ever happened to you?

Have you ever found yourself feeling really high energy or racy, or feeling like you can take on the whole world?

S – Safety

S – Spirituality

Explore sunscreen protection, immunisation, bullying, abuse, traumatic experiences, risky behaviours; and beliefs, religion

What helps you relax, escape?

What gives you a sense of meaning?

Appendix 3a. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Social Emotional Wellbeing (SEW) assessment²⁷

Original HEEADSSS

‘domain’ and description

Social emotional wellbeing topic and description

Comments

General

We want to find out about the young person’s background, beliefs, experiences and connection to culture. We also want to hear about their hopes or plans for the future. This is an important part of the assessment and may overlap with the other areas

Non-Indigenous health professionals must not engage in the cultural aspects of this discussion unless they have good local Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander knowledge and connections and excellent rapport with the young person

Home

Explore the home situation, family life, relationships and stability

Home

We want to find out about where the young person is living and with whom; family life, relationships and stability We want to know if the young person feels safe in their environment

We also want to identify any overcrowding that is causing problems

There are social and wellbeing benefits to living with a supportive network of people. Therefore, it is important to ask about overcrowding that is causing problems, rather than assuming that it is a problem by definition

Education/employment

Explore sense of belonging at school/work and relationships with teachers/ peers/workmates, changes in performance

Learning/work

We want to find out about:
How the young person is going at school and/or work
Relationships with teachers/peers/workmates
Whether there have been big changes in how they are going at school or work
Whether they feel safe at school/work
Whether they have any plans for when they finish school or for their career

Eating/exercise

Explore how they look after themselves, eating and sleeping patterns

Eating/exercise

We want to find out about:
Food and eating habits, whether they eat bush tucker, whether they are getting enough to eat
Who does the food shopping and cooking
What kind of exercise they get during a week, how often and how much. This can include playing sports, going to a gym, walking to the shops or bus stop, walking/riding a bicycle to school or work
Whether there has been any recent change in weight and if this is something the young person had planned or not

Food insecurity is recognised as a determinant of poor health in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population^100,101

The One21seventy child health audit includes evidence of concern regarding food security¹⁰²

Activities/peer relationships

Explore their social and interpersonal relationships, risk-taking behaviour, as well as their attitudes about themselves

Hobbies, interests and friendships We want to find out about:

How the young person gets along with other young people
How they are socialising
What kind of interests they have
Whether they do things safely (eg wears a bicycle helmet, puts on a seat belt, uses sunscreen and wears sunglasses)
Whether they are taking part in any high-risk behaviours, including gambling

If there are risk-taking behaviours/ activities, we need to:

Check whether the young person has broken the law or been involved with the juvenile justice system
Refer for youth-specific counselling

If the young person seems to be socially isolated, we need to conduct a mental health assessment

Drug use/cigarettes/ alcohol

Explore the context of substance use (if any) and risk-taking behaviours

Substance use, including cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs

We want to find out if the young person is smoking, drinking alcohol or using other drugs If so, we want to find out about:

Whether they are being pressured into it
What they are using, how and when they use, how much they are smoking/drinking/using, how often, if there have been any problems
If the people they spend time with smoke, drink or use substances

Suicide/self-arm/ depression/mood

Explore risk of mental health problems, strategies for coping and available support

Mental health

We want to find out about the young person’s mood, whether there is ongoing stress in their life, whether there has been anything hurtful or traumatic happen to them recently or in the past

If the young person has a mood problem, you must assess if they are at risk of self-harm or suicide

Sexuality

Explore their knowledge, understanding, experience, sexual orientation and sexual practices. Look for risktaking behaviour/abuse

Sexual health and sexuality

We want to discuss the young person’s sexual health, whether they have had or are having sex, what their sexual orientation is and how they feel about themselves

If the young person has had or is having sex, we want to know if:

They are using any kind of protection or contraception
They are consenting to it or being pressured

Safety and spirituality Explore sunscreen protection, immunisation, bullying, abuse, traumatic experiences, risky behaviours Explore beliefs, religion:

What helps them relax, escape?
What gives them a sense of meaning?

Immunisation status is usually checked as part of ongoing clinical care. Ask about it only if it is not already known

Safety issues have been considered across all areas and not as a separate topic

Spirituality has been considered as part of cultural connectedness

Finishing off

We complete this assessment by checking with the young person if there is anything else they wish to talk about

Appendix 3b: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Social Emotional Wellbeing (SEW) assessment: Question guide²⁷
Topic area	Possible questions
General Explore background, beliefs, experiences and connection to culture	Can you tell me about yourself? Where’s country for you? Where are you from? Where is your family from? Do you visit country or your family’s country? Do you like where you are from? Do you feel connected with your culture? How close do you feel to your culture? Do you feel connected with your community? How close do you feel to your community? Do you take part in any cultural and/or community activities (eg NAIDOC events, ceremonies, hunting, art and crafts)? If so, how often? Do you speak any Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander languages? Do you have any beliefs that are important to you (religious or spiritual)? Have you been through ceremony? [Do not ask this question unless you have good local Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander knowledge and connections and excellent rapport with the young person] What do you hope for in your life? Have you faced, or do you face, prejudice or racism? [If ‘Yes’, explore details]
Home Explore the home situation, family life, relationships and stability. We also want to identify any overcrowding that is causing problems	Can you tell me about where you live? Where do you live? (What type of place, how many rooms, is this where you live all the time? Is there any chance you will need to move?) Do you stay at more than one place? [If ‘Yes’] What is it like for you moving around? Do you have your own room? Can you tell me about your family/the people you are living with? How many people live with you at the moment? How are things going at home or where you live? Who are you closest to in your family? Do you get along with your family? Do your family members get along with each other? Do you have any worries about your family or friends? Do you have children? (What age?) Do you feel safe at home or where you are staying? Are there ever times you feel like leaving home? Have there been any changes at home lately (moves, departures, travelling to and from home/community etc)?
Learning/work Explore how the young person is going at school/work and relationships with teachers/peers/ workmates; whether there have been significant changes	Do you go to school/study or work? What year are you in/what job do you do? How are you going at school/work? Or Are you happy at school/work? [Explore] If not, why? Have you been missing or not going to school/work, or often turning up late? Are you keeping up with your schoolwork? Do you need any help? How are your grades? Or What are your school reports like? Do you get along with your teachers/boss and other students/workmates? [Explore] How are your friends or other students or workmates treating you? Or Do you have any problems at school/work, like getting bullied? Do you feel safe at school/work? Does your family encourage or help you with your studies/sport/work? What would you like to do when you leave school/you’re older? Or What job/career plans do you have?
Eating/Exercise Explore food and eating habits and physical activity	What do you usually eat and drink over a whole day? Or Tell me what you ate yesterday? [Explore type of food and amount, bush tucker] What do you like to eat? Do you get enough to eat? Who shops for the food/groceries? Who does the cooking? Has your weight or diet changed lately? How do you feel about the way you look? [Explore the possibility of eating disorders] During a usual or typical week, what kind of exercise do you do? Do you play sport or do any exercise? [Explore what kind, including traditional dance, how often and for how long] Do you ride your bike or walk to get around? [Explore informal physical activity]
Hobbies, interests and friendships Explore relationships with other young people, how they are socialising, whether they are engaging in any high-risk behaviours	Who do you hang around with? (Brothers, sisters, cousins, aunties, uncles or friends from school?) [Explore for social isolation] Do you like your friends, and how much time do you spend hanging out with them? Have you ever been pressured into anything by your peers? What do you (and your friends) do in your free/spare time? What do you do on the weekend? Do you wear bike helmets, seatbelts? Do you use sunglasses and sunscreen? Do you do anything that gets you into trouble, or could get you into trouble? Have you ever been in trouble with the police? Do you play the pokies, cards or bet online? [If ‘Yes’] How do you pay for it? Or What do you spend your money on?
Substance use, including cigarettes Explore use, type, amount, frequency, consequences. Explore if the people they spend time with smoke, drink or use substances	Do people around you smoke or drink? Do you smoke or drink? How much and how often? What about drugs? Are people around you doing drugs? What type and how often? Have you tried drugs before? [If ‘Yes’] Are you still taking them? What type and how often? [If currently using] Does this affect relationships, school, work or other responsibilities? How are you paying for it? Has this ever got you into trouble (getting into fights or in trouble with the police)? Are you, or have you been, pressured into it?
Mental health Explore mood, stress, and trauma. Assess suicide risk if there are mood problems	How have you been feeling lately? Have you been feeling sad, stressed, nervous or worried? [This question is not necessary if the young person has filled out a mental health tool such as the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10) or K-5 questionnaire.]103 Are you still enjoying things as much as usual? How have you been sleeping? How much sleep do you get each night? Has your eating been OK? Has anything traumatic or hurtful happened to you lately or in the past? Do you have thoughts about hurting yourself? Have you ever tried to hurt yourself? [If ‘Yes’, explore how serious the injury was] Have you had any thoughts about suicide? [If ‘Yes’] Have you tried to end your own life? [Try to find out if this is a current problem] *[Do not ask this question routinely. Ask this only if the young person has risk factors for suicide.]**
Sexual health and sexuality	[If the young person appears not to have not gone through puberty] Have you noticed any body changes? [For females] Are you having periods? Is everything going OK with your monthly or period? Do you have a boyfriend or girlfriend? Have you ever slept with them or had sexual intercourse? How about with other people (boys/girls or males/females)? What do you use for protection? [For females] Do you take anything to stop you from getting pregnant (eg pill or Implanon)? Are you attracted to boys/males or girls/females, or are you unsure? Do you feel comfortable with your sexuality or feelings? Has anyone ever taken advantage of you or used you? Have you ever felt uncomfortable or pressured about having sexual intercourse?
Finishing off	Do you have any other concerns? Or Is there anything else you want to talk about? Or Is there anything else that is worrying you that we have not talked about?
^*Risk factors for suicide: past history of intentional self-harm; history of mood or mental health problems; hazardous alcohol consumption or use of other recreational drugs.

National guide to a preventive health assessment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

References

Chown P, Kang M, Sanci L, Newnham V, Bennett DL. Adolescent health GP resource kit: Enhancing the skills of general practitioners in caring for young people from culturally diverse backgrounds. 2nd edn. Westmead, NSW: NSW Centre for the Advancement of Adolescent Health and Transcultural Mental Health Centre, 2008. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing 2011. Cat. no. PHE 140. Canberra: AIHW, 2011. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Definition of youth. Geneva: UNDESA, [date unknown]. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
World Health Organization. Adolescents: Health risks and solutions – Fact sheet. Geneva: WHO, 2017. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
World Health Organization. Promoting and safeguarding the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents. Geneva: WHO, 2006.
Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. Investing in the health and well-being of young adults. Washington, DC: The National Acadamies Press, 2015.
Hwang LY, Tebb KP, Shafer MB, Pantell RH. Examination of the treatment and follow-up care for adolescents who test positive for Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005;159:1162–66.
Carr-Gregg MR, Enderby KC, Grover SR. Risk-taking behaviour of young women in Australia: Screening for health-risk behaviours. Med J Aust 2003;178(12):601–04.
Bradford S, Rickwood D. Psychosocial assessments for young people: A systematic review examining acceptability, disclosure and engagement, and predictive utility. Adolesc Health Med Ther 2012;3:111–25.
Ham P, Allen C. Adolescent health screening and counseling. Am Fam Physician 2012;86(12):1109–16.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Contraceptive services for under 25s. Public health guideline [PH51]. UK: NICE, 2014. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
Duncan P, Frankowski B, Carey P, et al. Improvement in adolescent screening and counseling rates for risk behaviors and developmental tasks. Pediatrics 2012;130(5):e1345–51.
Oscós-Sánchez MA, White D, Bajorek E, et al. SAFE TEENS: Facilitators of and barriers to adolescent preventive care discussions. Fam Med 2008;40(2):125–31.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Census 2011. Australia: ABS, 2011. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
van der Sterren A, Greenhalgh E, Knoche D, Winstanley M. Prevalence of tobacco use among Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders. In: Scollo MM, Winstanley MH. Tobacco in Australia: Facts and issues. Melbourne: Cancer Council Victoria, 2016.
Queensland Health. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adolescent sexual health guideline. Brisbane: Queensland Health, 2013. [Accessed 20 November 2017].
Elster A. Guidelines for adolescent preventive services. US: United States Preventive Services Task Force, updated 2017. [Accessed 20 February 2017].
UK Department of Health. You’re welcome – Quality criteria for young people friendly health services. London: Department of Health, 2011.
Walker R. The Youth Education Peers (YEP) Project final report. Perth: Youth Affairs Council of Western Australia, 2011.
Beall S. Talking with teens: Successfully screening for high-risk behavior. J Soc Pediatr Nurs 2000;5(3):139–42.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Guide to clinical preventive services, 2014. Recommendations of the US Preventive Services Task Force. Pub. no. 14-05158. Rockville, MD: AHRQ, 2014.
Klein DA, Goldenring JM, Adelman WP. HEEADSSS 3.0: The psychosocial interview for adolescents updated for a new century fueled by media. Ohio: Modern Medicine Network, 2014.
Christie D, Viner R. Adolescent development. BMJ 2005;330(7486):301–04.
NSW Ministry of Health. Youth Health 2015: Report on the annual survey of the NSW Youth Health Policy 2011–16. North Sydney, NSW: NSW Ministry of Health, 2016. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Graybeal C. Strengths-based social work assessment: Transforming the dominant paradigm. Families in Society: Journal of Contemporary Social Services 2001;82(3):233–42.
Brough M, Bond C, Hunt J. Strong in the city: Towards a strength based approach in Indigenous health promotion. Health Promot J Austr 2004;15(3):215–20.
Nori A, Piovesan R, O’Connor J, Rigney D, McMillan MM, Brown N. ‘Y Health – Staying Deadly’: An Aboriginal Youth focussed Translational Action Research Project. Canberra: ANU, 2014.
Goldenring J, Rosen D. Getting into adolescent heads: An essential update. Contemporary Pediatrics 2004:21:64.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australia’s mothers and babies 2014 – In brief. Cat. no. PER 87. Canberra: AIHW, 2016.
Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. Overview of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health status, 2015. Perth: Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, 2016. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
World Health Organization. Adolescent pregnancy: Fact sheet. Geneva: WHO, 2016. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
State of Victoria. Teenage pregnancy. Vic: Better Health Channel, [date unknown]. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Hutchinson M, Joyce A, Cheong M. Induced abortions in Western Australia 2010–2012. Fourth report of the Western Australian abortion notification system. WA: DoH, 2013.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey, 2004–05. Cat. no. 4715.0. Canberra: ABS, 2006; p. 47.
Walker D, Torres P, Gutierrez J, Flemming K, Bertozzi S. Emergency contraception use is correlated with increased condom use among adolescents: Results from Mexico. J Adolesc Health 2004;35(4):329–34.
Killoran A, McCormick G. Towards an integrated approach to sexual health services: The contribution of NICE guidance on one-toone interventions to prevent STIs and under 18 conceptions. Health Educ J 2010;69(3):297–310.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sexually transmitted infections and under-18 conceptions: Prevention. Public health guideline [PH3]. UK: NICE, 2007.
Minnesota Department of Health. Anticipatory guidance 13–21 years. St Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Health, 2017. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Polis CB, Schaffer K, Blanchard K, Glasier A, Harper CC, Grimes DA. Advance provision of emergency contraception for pregnancy prevention: A meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110(6):1379–88.
American Psychological Association. Developing adolescents: A reference for professionals. Washington, DC: APA, 2002.
Robinson E. Young people and their parents: Supporting families through changes that occur in adolescence. Australia: Child Family Community Australia, 2006.
Robinson E, Power L, Allan D. What works with adolescents? Family connections and involvement in interventions for adolescent problem behaviours. AFRC Briefing no. 16. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2010. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Hofmeyr GJ, Singata M, Lawrie TA. Copper containing intra-uterine devices versus depot progestogens for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(6):CD007043.
Tang JH, Lopez LM, Mody S, Grimes DA. Hormonal and intrauterine methods for contraception for women aged 25 years and younger. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;11:CD009805.
Deans EI, Grimes DA. Intrauterine devices for adolescents: A systematic review. Contraception 2009;79(6):418–23.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Long-acting reversible contraception. Clinical guideline [CG30]. UK: NICE, 2005. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Power J, French R, Cowan FM. Subdermal implantable contraceptives versus other forms of reversible contraceptives or other implants as effective methods for preventing pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(3):CD001326.
Lopez LM, Newmann SJ, Grimes DA, Nanda K, Schulz KF. Immediate start of hormonal contraceptives for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;(2):CD006260.
McGaurr L. Young Australians and sexual health. Canberra: Australian Clearinghouse for Youth Studies, 2015.
Lopez LM, Grey TW, Chen M, Tolley EE, Stockton LL. Theory‐based interventions for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;11:CD007249.
Thomas J, Vigurs C, Oliver K, et al. Targeted youth support: Rapid Evidence Assessment of effective early interventions for youth at risk of future poor outcomes. London: Institute of Education University of London, 2008.
DiCenso A, Guyatt G, Willan A, Griffith L. Interventions to reduce unintended pregnancies among adolescents: Systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2002;324(7351):1426–30.
Speizer IS, Magnani RJ, Colvin CE. The effectiveness of adolescent reproductive health interventions in developing countries: A review of the evidence. J Adolesc Health 2003;33(5):324–48.
World Health Organization. Core competencies in adolescent health and development for primary care providers: Including a tool to assess the adolescent health and development component in pre-service education of health-care providers. Geneva: WHO, 2015.
Family Health International. Behavior change – A summary of four major theories. Durham, NC: FHI, 2004. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. National Drug Strategy Household Survey detailed report: 2013. Cat. no. PHE 183. Canberra: AIHW, 2014.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health survey 2012–13. Canberra: ABS, 2013. Available at [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. The health and welfare of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: 2015. Cat. no. IHW 147. Canberra: AIHW, 2015.
Al Iede M, Nunn K, Milne B, Fitzgerald DA. The consequences of chronic cannabis smoking in vulnerable adolescents. Paediatr Respir Rev 2017;24:44–53.
Loxley W, Toumbourou JW, Stockwell T, et al. The prevention of substance use, risk and harm in Australia: A review of the evidence. Monograph prepared by the National Drug Research Institute and the Centre for Adolescent Health. Canberra: Department of Health and Ageing, 2004.
d’Abbs P, Shaw G. Monitoring trends in the prevalence of petrol sniffing in selected Australian Aboriginal communities 2011–2014: Final report. Darwin: Menzies School of Health Research, 2016.
Marel C, MacLean SJ, Midford R. Review of volatile substance use among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Perth: Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2015.
Jamieson L, Gunthorpe W, Cairney S, Sayers S, Roberts-Thomson K, Slade G. Substance use and periodontal disease among Australian Aboriginal young adults. Addiction 2010;105(4):719–26.
Crossin R, Cairney S, Lawrence AJ, Duncan JR. Adolescent inhalant abuse leads to other drug use and impaired growth; implications for diagnosis. Aust N Z J Public Health 2017;41(1):99–104.
Aboriginal Drug and Alcohol Council. Conference resolutions: Paper presented at 4th National Indigenous Drug and Alcohol Conference, 2016. Adelaide: Aboriginal Drug and Alcohol Council, 2016.
Commonwealth of Australia. Final report of the National Ice Taskforce. Australia: Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2015. Available at www.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/publications/national_ice_taskforce_final_report.pdf [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Stockwell T, Gruenewald P, Toumbourou J, Loxley W, eds. Preventing harmful substance use: The evidence base for policy and practice. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2012–13. Canberra: ABS, 2014.
Bashford J. Screening and assessment for cannabis use disorders. Background paper for Management of cannabis use disorder and related issues: A clinician’s guide. Sydney: National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre, 2009. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation. The Australian immunisation handbook. 10th edn. Canberra: Department of Health, 2017.
New Zealand Guidelines Group. Identification of common mental disorders and management of depression in primary care. Wellington: New Zealand Guidelines Group, 2008.
Department of Health and Ageing. Alcohol treatment guidelines for Indigenous Australians. Canberra: DoHA, 2007.
Christie G, Marsh R, Sheridan J, et al. The substances and choices scale (SACS) – The development and testing of a new alcohol and other drug screening and outcome measurement instrument for young people. Addiction Sep 2007;102(9):1390–98.
Schlesinger CM, Ober C, McCarthy MM, Watson JD, Seinen A. The development and validation of the Indigenous Risk Impact Screen (IRIS): A 13-item screening instrument for alcohol and drug and mental health risk. Drug Alcohol Rev 2007;26(2):109–17.
Smedslund G, Berg RC, Hammerstrøm KT, et al. Motivational interviewing for substance abuse. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;(5):CD008063.
Carney T, Myers BJ, Louw J, Okwundu CI. Brief school-based interventions and behavioural outcomes for substance-using adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;(2):CD008969.
Gray D, Stearne A, Wilson M, Doyle M. Indigenous-specific alcohol and other drug interventions: Continuities, changes and areas of greatest need. Canberra: Australian National Council on Drugs, 2010.
MacLean S, d’Abbs P. Petrol sniffing in Aboriginal communities: A review of interventions. Drug Alcohol Rev 2002;21(1):65–72.
Gray D, Saggers S. Indigenous Australian alcohol and other drug issues: Research from the National Drug Institute. Perth: National Drug Research Institute, 2002.
McCain MN, Mustard JF. Reversing the brain drain: Early years study: Final report. Toronto: Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 1999.
Shonkoff JP, Phillips DA, eds. From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, DC: NRCIM, 2000.
Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ, eds. Handbook of early childhood intervention. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Parenting programmes for preventing tobacco, alcohol or drugs misuse in children <18: A systematic review. Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, 2011.
Toumbourou J, Gregg M. Impact of an empowerment-based parent education program on the reduction of youth suicide risk factors. J Adolesc Health 2002;31(3):277–85.
Bry B, Catalano R, Kumpfer K, Lochman J. Scientific findings from family prevention intervention research. In: Ashery R, Robertson E, Kumpfer K, eds. Drug abuse prevention through family interventions: NIDA research monograph 177. Rockville, MD: US Department of Human Services, 1998; p. 103–29.
Marel C, Mills K, Shakeshaft A, Shand F, Teesson M. Evaluation of the CAYLUS Youth Worker Brokerage: Executive summary 2014–2016. NSW: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2016. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Contributors to the Cochrane Collaborative and the Campbell Collaboration. Evidence from systematic reviews of research relevant to implementing the ‘wider public health’ agenda. York: NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2000.
Kaldor J, Lapsley H, Mattick R, Weatherburn D. Six month process report on the Medically Supervised Injecting Centre. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2002.
Kaldor J, Lapsley H, Mattick R, Weatherburn D, Kimber J, MacDonald M. Twelve-month process evaluation report on the Medically Supervised Injecting Centre. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2002.
Salmon A, van Beek I, Amin J, Kaldor J, Maher L. The impact of a supervised injecting facility on ambulance call-outs in Sydney, Australia. Addiction 2010;105(4):676–83.
MSIC Evaluation Committee. Final report on the evaluation of the Sydney Medically Supervised Injecting Centre. Sydney: MSIC Evaluation Committee, 2003.
Ma Jun WY, Stafford RS. US adolescents receive suboptimal preventive counseling during ambulatory care. J Adolesc Health 2005;36(5):441e441–47.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Drug misuse prevention: Targeted interventions. UK: NICE, 2017. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hepatitis B and C testing: People at risk of infection. UK: NICE, 2012. [Accessed 21 November 2017].
Martin G. Adolescents. Background paper for Management of cannabis use disorder and related issues: A clinician’s guide. Sydney: National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre, 2009.
Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ, eds. Handbook of early childhood intervention. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Faggiano F, Minozzi S, Versino E, Buscemi D. Universal school-based prevention for illicit drug use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;(12):CD003020.
Westerman T. Engaging Australian Aboriginal youth in mental health services. Australian Psychologist 2010;45(3):212–22.
Sanci L. Adolescent health care principles. East Melbourne, Vic: RACGP, 2001.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. The health and welfare of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, 2008. Cat. no. 4704.0. Canberra: AIHW and ABS, 2008. [Accessed 20 May 2013].
Browne J, Laurence S, Thorpe S. Acting on food insecurity in urban Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities: Policy and practice interventions to improve local access and supply of nutritious food. Perth: Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet, 2009. [Accessed 20 May 2013].
Menzies School of Health. Resources: Child health clinical audit. Darwin: Menzies School of Health, 2014. [Accessed 18 December 2017].
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Measuring the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Cat. no. IHW 24. Canberra: AIHW, 2009: 5–6.