White Book

‘Domestic’ or intimate partner abuse/violence - Chapter 5

Working with men who use intimate partner abuse and violence

      1. Working with men who use intimate partner abuse and violence

‘Men’s use of IPAV is a serious health issue for the entire family. It impacts the woman, any children in the family, and the man himself.’

Key messages

  • Both men and women may experience or use abuse in adult intimate relationships; however, men use abuse more frequently and severely.
  • Men who use intimate partner abuse/violence (IPAV) are not a homogenous group; they come from all socioeconomic, cultural and social groups.
  • It is not recommended for one health practitioner to counsel both a woman who is experiencing abuse and her male partner who uses abuse.
Consider asking men who are experiencing substance misuse and mental health concerns about possible use of IPAV.
(Practice Point: Consensus of Experts)
Men’s behavioural change programs are the referral options of choice for men who use IPAV.
(Conditional Recommendation: Low Certainty of Evidence)
Any psychological therapies should be delivered by people who are experienced IPAV, and should have a trauma-informed focus.
(Practice point: Consensus of Experts)

This chapter discusses working with men who use IPAV, including identification, safety and management. See other chapters for information about identification and initial response, safety and risk assessment, and ongoing support and management for women who experience IPAV.

Note that this chapter focuses on men’s use of IPAV in heterosexual adult intimate relationships. For details about IPAV in same-sex relationships, see the chapter on LGBTIQA+ family abuse and violence.

Prevalence

Self-report questionnaires used to identify men who use IPAV1 often lead to issues of under-reporting. The most consistent figures for prevalence come from reports by women who experience IPAV. These figures place prevalence rates of use of IPAV in Australia at 20–25% of the general population.2,3

While both men and women use IPAV in relationships, men use IPAV more frequently and severely, so that women who experience IPAV are more likely to fear for their lives.4

Men’s use of IPAV is a serious health issue for the entire family. It impacts the woman,2 any children in the family,5 and the man himself.6

Which men use intimate partner abuse?

There are no distinguishing characteristics of a man who uses or is likely to use IPAV: men who use IPAV come from all socioeconomic, cultural and religious backgrounds.

GPs need to be aware that individuals who use IPAV tend to minimise responsibility for their use of IPAV, blame their partner or other issues, and greatly under-report their use of IPAV. They generally have developed ways of convincing themselves and others that they aren’t responsible for their use of IPAV and often invite GPs and other practitioners to collude with those attitudes and beliefs.

Nevertheless, GPs have a unique opportunity to identify their male patients who use or are at risk of using IPAV and provide appropriate support and care.7,8

Why do men use intimate partner abuse?

To understand why particular men use IPAV, it is important to understand that there are larger community and societal issues – norms and expectations – that create a complex framework in which men operate. Men may use physical, sexual, emotional, social, financial and other forms of violence to maintain their power and control in adult intimate relationships. This is often based on societal acceptance of male dominance, stereotyping of gender roles, linking masculinity to dominance and acceptance of violence to resolve conflict. These are all attitudes that are associated with IPAV.9

While gender-based power and control is an underlying factor in men’s use of IPAV, other factors are involved. Men who use IPAV are more likely to come from families where their father used IPAV, where they experienced child abuse or where they had an absent or rejecting father. However, some men who use IPAV report well-adjusted childhoods and peaceful family-of-origin environments.5

Other factors that have been linked to IPAV are psychiatric disorders and substance abuse10–12 and these have also been correlated with more significant risk of injury to women partners experiencing IPAV.13,14 Poverty, unemployment and associating with delinquent peers in the community are also risk factors for use of IPAV. Individual, relationship, community and societal factors all play a part in shaping men’s use of IPAV,15 so it is important for GPs to view a clinical intervention as only one tool in a wider response. Legislation, policing, social sanctions and community attitudes are also critical to ending the man’s violence.16,17

It is extremely important to qualify that while some of the factors outlined above and in Box 5.1 may be risk factors for IPAV, they are not causal. The majority of men who use IPAV are neither mentally ill nor substance abusers. Profiling the characteristics of men who use IPAV is an emerging field of research.

Box 5.1. Risk factors associated with use of IPAV (these are not causal)

  • Attitude that supports violence towards women
  • Mental health problems
  • Drugs or alcohol misuse
  • Stressful events
  • Recent separation
  • History of abusive and violent behaviours
  • Adverse childhood experiences (eg child abuse and neglect)

The role of GPs

GPs, unlike other healthcare providers, focus on the care of all family members. Therefore, GPs may come into contact with:

  • individuals who experience IPAV
  • individuals who use IPAV
  • children who witness and/or experience abuse and violence
  • young people who use violence in the home.

Research shows that men who use IPAV present to general practice for healthcare needs more often than men who do not use IPAV.18 This can be for a range of issues including injuries, anxiety or depression.

Although men who use IPAV are often reluctant to seek help or disclose their behaviours, it is still necessary for GPs to ask about any potentially abusive behaviour.19 Indeed, GPs were viewed as the next most likely source of support for men who use IPAV, after friends and family. Men viewed GPs as a trustworthy source of help due to the reassurance that any disclosed information would remain confidential.19 A caveat to this confidentiality is if there is a risk to the safety of the (ex) partner and/or children. If there is a risk of safety to the (ex) partner, the man’s confidentiality can be breached if the GP believes this will increase the safety of the (ex) partner; with children this is covered by mandatory reporting. The known facilitators of help-seeking include a trusting patient–doctor relationship, the appropriate timing of questions about use of IPAV, and a non-judgemental attitude by the GP.20

It is not recommended for one GP to provide care to both the woman partner who experiences IPAV and the male partner who uses it.17 This can be managed by referral to another GP within the practice or by referral to another agency. Doctors in rural areas may find this particularly difficult and may need to refer patients to services in neighbouring towns.

Separate GPs are recommended to protect the woman’s safety and confidentiality. It is possible that a GP might inadvertently reveal information provided by a woman experiencing IPAV to her partner. Many men who use IPAV are extremely alert and attuned to what they think their partner is telling other people. If the GP ‘lets something slip’, even subtly, about the partner who is experiencing IPAV, the man may ‘punish’ the woman – assault her – for daring to discuss this with someone.

Identification

Although men who use IPAV need help to address their use of it, these men are often reluctant or unwilling to disclose.8

Use of IPAV is linked with increased rates of alcohol and substance misuse, mental health concerns and use of health services.11,18 While not all men with these factors will use IPAV, GPs need to be aware of the possibility of IPAV use among men who present with these concerns.

Again, although use of IPAV is linked with mental illness and substance misuse, it is important to not over-pathologise men who use IPAV. Abandoning generalisations and negative attitudes, along with being open to providing non-judgmental support to men who use IPAV, is important in providing successful treatment.20

Broaching the subject of IPAV with men may be difficult for several reasons, including:

  • trouble viewing the patient as someone who uses violence or abuse
  • concern about damaging the patient–doctor relationship for ongoing care
  • the practitioner feeling at risk from the man if they raise the topic
  • concerns that broaching the subject will add extra stress to the relationship
  • not wishing to invade the man’s privacy
  • the need to manage confidentiality and privacy issues when managing an entire 21,22

Remember, addressing the issue may help reduce the risk for other family members, but it may also increase the risk, so great care is needed when raising this subject.17 Broaching the subject of IPAV with men is possible with the use of funnelling questions (refer to Figure 5.1).17 This requires starting with a broad subject and becoming more specific. The efficacy of these queries is increased if you ask the questions in a caring, rather than accusatory, tone. Initial questions may include:23

  • How are things at home?
  • Have you or your partner ever been injured?

Then, after you have established some trust, you may wish to move onto more specific questions, such as:

  • When you feel angry, what do you do?
  • Do you think she is ever scared or frightened of you?
  • Do you do things that you later regret?
  • How do your children react when you get angry?
  • If there was a fly on the wall in your home, when you feel angry, what would that fly be seeing about your behaviour?

Figure 5.1. Funnelling questions to identify men who may use abuse and violence in intimate relationships<sup>17 </sup>

Figure 5.1. Funnelling questions to identify men who may use abuse and violence in intimate relationships17

Reproduced with permission from: Hegarty K, Forsdike-Young K, Tarzia L, Schweitzer R, Vlais R. Identifying and responding to men who use violence in their intimate relationships. Aust Fam Physician 2016;45(4):176–81.

Management

Immediate safety of the partner and any children who may have experienced and/or witnessed IPAV is the first priority when a man is identified to have used IPAV. Management objectives also include:

  • taking a history – especially suicidality, substance misuse, mental health and access to weapons
  • reinforcing that abuse and violence are not okay – condemn the actions, not the person
  • encouraging ownership of the behaviour – help the man who uses IPAV to take responsibility for his behaviour
  • encouraging active change.

Emotional regulations

Men do not use IPAV only when they are angry. They might be feeling a range of emotions when they use IPAV. Many men use IPAV when they are calm – controlling tactics used to restrict the woman’s life and to instil fear. Most men who use IPAV choose not to use IPAV in other settings even if they feel anger, such as in the workplace, in a major shopping centre or if the police are present. Many men will try to direct the conversation back to blaming their partner:

‘You don’t live with her; she keeps screaming at me and is hopeless with the finances …’

It is important not to allow the man who uses IPAV to rehearse his violence-supporting narratives like this for too long, and to assertively yet calmly bring the attention back to him. Some simple questions to ask the man regarding this include:

‘How would your reaction have been different if the police had been present?’ ‘If you were about to yell at her, how would your response change if the doorbell rang?’

Treatment and support

In Australia, Men’s Behaviour Change Programs (MBCPs), rather than anger-management programs, are the preferred referral option for men who use IPAV.24  MBCPs have been shown to have positive effects,25,26 helping some, but not all men, to stop using IPAV.

For some men, these programs work well to reduce or even stop their use of IPAV. For others, the programs produce mixed results, such as benefits that do not sustain over time, or a man stops using some forms of IPAV but not others. For other individuals, these programs produce little discernible benefit.24,27

In healthcare settings, interventions to target IPAV use (including cognitive behavioural therapy and motivational interviewing-based interventions) that are combined with alcohol treatment show some promise.28

Referral should be to an MBCP delivered by an accredited agency, which may have a drug/alcohol rehabilitation program and/or a mental health specialist. Such agencies will also contact and provide support for the woman (refer to Resources).

MBCPs are the referral option of choice even for men with substance misuse or mental health concerns. MBCPs include a thorough assessment and can work with, or refer men to, accompanying substance misuse or mental health services. If the substance misuse or mental health concerns are urgent, or if the man is not ready to accept a referral to an MBCP, then a referral to a drug/alcohol rehabilitation or mental health service is certainly better than no referral at all.

Telephone services

Most states have a telephone information, referral and counselling service for men who use IPAV.

Men who do not appear ready to attend an MBCP might be more comfortable taking the initial step of calling such a service. The service will then attempt to motivate them to attend a program.

GPs can also phone any of these services for information about local MBCP referral options.

Providing ongoing support

Referring men who use IPAV to an MBCP is not the end of the GP’s involvement. Supporting the man’s change and monitoring the safety of the family is an important and ongoing task. It is also very important to do the best possible to ensure that the woman receives counselling and support from a specialist family violence service, remembering that the same GP should not be the GP for both partners. Indeed, this should be the first priority – that the woman is receiving specialist family violence services. Permission should be asked from the man to allow the sharing of this information.

The importance of this ongoing care is underscored by the fact that MBCPs have a low success rate.

Couples or family counselling

Referral for couple or family counselling is not appropriate until the man has ceased using violent and abusive behaviours.29 Couple therapy requires people to open up and disclose important thoughts. If the woman does this while her partner is still being abusive, it may put her at increased risk. Alternatively, she may be forced to lie to protect her safety.

Nick is a patient of the practice and he comes to see the GP saying he has some issues with anger. When asked about his home circumstances he tells the GP he is married to Gabby and they have a small child, Jane who is 10 months.

The GP asks about how things are at home and at work. He is not very forth coming with his answers. The GP wonders what is happening with this family and if Nick is using abuse or violence.

The GP asks about his ‘problems with anger’ and Nick says he is not very happy with things at home and sometimes gets upset.

After some more questions about how things are at home, Nick is asked: ‘Do you think Gabby is ever scared or frightened of you?’ After some thought Nick says Gabby is very disorganised and this upsets him. The GP notices that Nick has not answered the question and has shifted responsibility onto Gabby. The GP decides not to press Nick further yet.

The GP askes can you tell me more about this? Nick talks about how things are different since Jane was born. Nick says that Gabby has been paying less attention to him and is not keeping up with the housework “despite being at home all of the time”. The GP asks ‘are you reacting to this by becoming angry? ‘Maybe’ says Nick.

The GP notices that Nick has limited understanding of the workload of being a stay at home parent with a small baby. The GP recognises that supporting Nick to build his understanding and insight about Gabby’s workload will take time.

The GP now thinks Nick may be abusive towards Gabby and Jane and wonders about his actions and how they might be impacting the family.

The GP again asks ‘Do you think Gabby is ever scared or frightened of you when you get angry?’

Nick thinks about this and admits that Gabby may in fact be scared of him, and says that he has never thought of this before.

Nick is then asked: ‘What do you think of Gabby being scared of you?’ After some thought, Nick looks upset, and admits that he is not happy with Gabby being scared of him but that her behaviour has driven him to this.

The GP notices again that Nick is trying to shift responsibility for his actions onto Gabby and is clear that Nick’s behaviour is Nick’s responsibility.

The GP and Nick talk about how Nick can keep his family safe in the next week. Nick agrees to review the No to Violence website and leave the house if he is becoming angry.

The GP recognises that this is a long-term problem and makes another appointment with Nick in a week.

During the next week, the GP considers how they might help Nick. The GP reads the chapter in the RACGP White Book – ‘Working with men who use intimate partner abuse and violence’.

The GP also looks at the Health Pathways about Perpetrators for local information.

The GP considers seeking a secondary consult with Men’s Referral Service 1300 766 491.

The GP feels better prepared for the next appointment with Nick. The GP understands that Nick is likely to invite the GP to collude by minimising the impact of his behaviour on Gabby and Jane and by shifting responsibility for his actions onto others.

The GP looks for resources to discuss with Nick and finds ‘Changing for Good’ on the Mens Line website.

The GP discusses these suggestions with Nick and they make a plan to keep working on the issues and keeping the family safe

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  2. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: Continuing the national story 2019. Cat. no. FDV 4. Canberra: AIHW, 2019.
  3. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Personal safety, Australia. Canberra: ABS, 2017.
  4. World Health Organization. Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva: WHO, 2013.
  5. Campo M. Children's exposure to domestic and family violence: Key issues and responses. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2015.
  6. Walker DD, Neighbors C, Mbilinyi LF, et al. Evaluating the impact of intimate partner violence on the perpetrator: The Perceived Consequences of Domestic Violence Questionnaire. J Interpers Violence 2010;25:1684–98.
  7. Hashimoto N, Radcliffe P, Gilchrist G. Help-seeking behaviors for intimate partner violence perpetration by men receiving substance use treatment: A mixed-methods secondary analysis. J Interpers Violence 2021;36:3142–67.
  8. Morgan K, Williamson E, Hester M, et al. Asking men about domestic violence and abuse in a family medicine context: Help seeking and views on the general practitioner role. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2014;19:637–42.
  9. Stewart DE, MacMillan H, Kimber M. Recognizing and responding to intimate partner violence: An update. Can J Psychiatry 2021;66:71–106.
  10. Danielson KK, Moffitt TE, Caspi A, et al. Comorbidity between abuse of an adult and DSM-III-R mental disorders: Evidence from an epidemiological study. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:131–33.
  11. Humphreys C, Regan L, River D, et al. Domestic violence and substance use: Tackling complexity. Br J Soc Work 2005;35:1303–20.
  12. Oram S, Trevillion K, Khalifeh H, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2014;23:361–76.
  13. Sharps PW, Campbell J, Campbell D, et al. The role of alcohol use in intimate partner femicide. Am J Addict 2001;10:122–35.
  14. Thompson MP, Kingree JB. The roles of victim and perpetrator alcohol use in intimate partner violence outcomes. J Interpers Violence 2006;21:163–77.
  15. Tarzia L. Toward an ecological understanding of intimate partner sexual violence. J Interpers Violence 2020:886260519900298.
  16. Taft A, Shakespeare J. Managing the whole family when women are abused by intimate partners: Challenges for health professionals. In: Mother and Child Health Research Centre. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2006.
  17. Hegarty K, Forsdike-Young K, Tarzia L, et al. Identifying and responding to men who use violence in their intimate relationships. Aust Fam Physician 2016;45:176–81.
  18. Coben J, Friedman D. Health care use by perpetrators of domestic violence. J Emerg Med 2002;22:313–17.
  19. Morgan K, Williamson E, Hester M, et al. Asking men about domestic violence and abuse in a family medicine context: Help seeking and views on the general practitioner role. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2014;19:637–42.
  20. Penti B, Tran H, Timmons J, et al. Physicians' experiences with male patients who perpetrate intimate partner violence. J Am Board Fam Med 2017;30:239–47.
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  22. Miller D, Jaye C. GPs' perception of their role in the identification and management of family violence. Fam Pract 2007;24:95–101.
  23. Helfritz LE, Stanford MS, Conklin SM, et al. Usefulness of self-report instruments in assessing men accused of domestic violence. The Psychological Record 2006;56:171–80.
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  25. Arce R, Arias E, Novo M, et al. Are interventions with batterers effective? A meta-analytical review. Psychosocial Intervention 2020;29:153–64.
  26. Westmarland N, Kelly L. Why extending measurements of ‘success’ in domestic violence perpetrator programmes matters for social work. Br J Soc Work 2013;43:1092–110.
  27. Day A, Vlais R, Chung D, et al. Evaluation readiness, program quality and outcomes in men’s behaviour change programs. Research report. Sydney: Australia's National Research Organisation for Women's Safety, 2019.
  28. Tarzia L, Forsdike K, Feder G, et al. Interventions in health settings for male perpetrators or victims of intimate partner violence. Trauma Violence Abuse 2020;21:123–37.
  29. Karakurt G, Whiting K, van Esch C, et al. Couples therapy for intimate partner violence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 2016;42:567–83.
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